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Plants are an integral part of all living organisms of the earth, and medicinal plants are widely distributed worldwide (Figure 2.1). Since time immemorial, humans from all the cultures of the world have independently selected plants for food, shelter, clothing, and medicine. Plants were identi'ed, according to their therapeutic properties and through trial and error, by the priests, shamans, herbalists, spiritual leaders and medicine men, and this practice is still a routine in many countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Australia, and Latin America. Indeed, the widespread use of natural herbs and medicinal plants for curing and preventing diseases (nature's pharmacy) has been described in the ancient texts of the Vedas and the Bible (Hoareau and DaSilva 1999) and the Qur'an and the Ahadith (Ahmad et al. 2009). Duke, Duke, and duCellier (2008) even wrote a book entitled Duke's Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible and cataloged "faith-based farmaceuticals".

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13

2 CHAPTER

Medicinal Plants—Nature's Pharmacy*

Ram J. Singh, Ales Lebeda, and Arthur O. Tucker

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Plants are an integral part of all living organisms of the earth, and medicinal plants are

widely distributed worldwide (Figure 2.1). Since time immemorial, humans from all the cul-

tures of the world have independently selected plants for food, shelter, clothing, and medicine.

Plants were identied, according to their therapeutic properties and through trial and error, by

the priests, shamans, herbalists, spiritual leaders and medicine men, and this practice is still

a routine in many countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Australia, and Latin America.

Indeed, the widespread use of natural herbs and medicinal plants for curing and preventing

diseases (nature's pharmacy) has been described in the ancient texts of the Vedas and the Bible

(Hoareau and DaSilva 1999) and the Qur'an and the Ahadith (Ahmad et al. 2009). Duke, Duke,

and duCellier (2008) even wrote a book entitled Duke's Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the

Bible and cataloged "faith-based farmaceuticals."

* This chapter is dedicated to the memory of the late Professor Edgar J. DaSilva, who suggested the inclusion of the topic

of this chapter in this book.

CONTENTS

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................13

2.2 Medicinal Plants, Herbs, and Crops: Concept and Issue ........................................................16

2.3 Medicinal Plants of Asia ......................................................................................................... 18

2.4 Medicinal Plants of Australia and New Zealand .................................................................... 19

2.5 Medicinal Plants of Oceania ..................................................................................................19

2.6 Medicinal Plants of Europe ....................................................................................................20

2.7 Medicinal Plants of Africa .....................................................................................................20

2.8 Medicinal Plants of the Middle East and North Africa ..........................................................23

2.9 Medicinal Plants of the Americas ..........................................................................................24

2.10 Modern Plant-Based Medicine ...............................................................................................25

2.11 Looking Forward ....................................................................................................................26

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................44

References ........................................................................................................................................44

73842_C002.indd 13 6/13/11 7:14:33 PM

14 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

BLAC K BEAN

EUCALYPT

PITURI

VELV ET BEAN

ROSY

PERIWINKLE

ALOE

CASTOR BEAN

PAPAYA

QUININE

CROTON

IPECAC

CASCARA

SAGRADA

WESTERN YEW

WILLOW MAYAPPLE

WILD YAM

VISNAGA

BELLADONNA

FOXGLOVE

SENNA

OPIUM

POPPY

MARIJUANA

GINKGO

INDIAN

SNAKEROO T

SWEET ANNIE

TRAGACAN TH

MA HUANG

BLAC K DOT

PSYLLIUM

VALERIAN

AUTUMN

CROCUS

CACAO

CURARE

BLOODROOT

HOT

PEPPER

JABORANDI

COCA

ORDEAL BEAN

YOHIMBE

Figure 2.1 Centers of origin for some medicinal plants. Medicinal plants include some herbs, spices, vegetables, fruits, and agronomic crops—legumes and oilseed

crops—from herbs to trees. (Duke, J. A. 2002. Handbook of medicinal herbs, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. With permission.)

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MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 15

The rapid explosion of human population, migration, urbanization, and deforestation created

many diseases for humans as well as for domesticated animals during the nineteenth century.

During this time, the systematic study of plants with medical properties was begun worldwide with

advances in chemistry.

Some believe that natural medicines have been overly studied, but, in fact, we have hardly

begun to tap the reservoir of potential therapeutics from plants. One study estimates that around

422,000 plant species exist worldwide (Marinelli 2005). These plants are a potentially rich source of

medicinal compounds, curing everything from the common cold to cancer and HIV/AIDS. Schultes

(1972) described chemical compounds of medicinal properties that are scattered throughout the

plant kingdom—250,000–350,000 species: 18,000 algaes; 90,000 fungi (including bacteria); 15,000

lichens; 14,000–20,000 bryophytes; 6,000–9,000 pteridophytes; 675 gymnosperms; and 200,000

species of angiosperms in some 300 families. These are an untapped reservoir for future wonder

drugs. Medicinal treasures from the wild may be available for future generations, but today only

50,000–80,000 owering plants are used medicinally worldwide (Marinelli 2005).

Different medicinal plants have antibiotic, antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic, and hyperlipidemic

properties (Mentreddy 2007). We present here some recent studies and reviews on the role of medic-

inal plants in treating human diseases and promoting healing:

Alzheimer's: Tucci (2008) reviewed herbal treatments for slowing the onset of Alzheimer's and remarked

that "herbal medicines…have been used for centuries as cognitive activators in traditional cultures,

and their consideration in the Western medical regime may eventually lead to greater options in the

treatment of Alzheimer's." Zhang (2005) listed on-compound multiple-target strategies to combat

Alzheimer's, both from natural and synthetic sources.

Cancer: Graham et al. (2000) listed 350 plant species used to ght cancer. These plants are native or

domesticates from Asia, Europe, South America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Australia. Ionkova

(2008) looked at several anticancer compounds from in vitro cultures of rare medicinal plants and

focused upon two genera: Astragalus and Linum. Mahady et al. (2003) found that the isoquino-

line alkaloids from Sanguinaria canadensis L. and Hydrastis canadensis L. were effective against

Helicobacter pylori, the cause of stomach ulcers and linked to stomach cancer. O'Sullivan-Coyne

et al. (2009) found that curcumin (the principal component in turmeric, Curcuma longa L.) induces

apoptosis-independent death in esophageal cancer cells. In regard to the role of dietary herbs and

spices in cancer prevention, Kaefer and Milner (2008) remarked:

While culinary herbs and spices present intriguing possibilities for health promotion, more complete

information is needed about the actual exposures to dietary compounds that are needed to bring

about a response and the molecular agent(s) for specic herbs and spices. Only after this informa-

tion is obtained will it be possible to dene appropriate intervention strategies to achieve maximum

benets from herbs and spices without eliciting ill consequences.

Conjunctivitis: Sharma and Singh (2002) listed 169 species of the 66 families used during 1933–2000

for treating conjunctivitis; the maximum number (17) of species was from the family Asteraceae,

followed by Euphorbiaceae (11) and Mimosaceae (8). These plant species are from Asia, Africa, the

Middle East, Europe, the South Pacic Islands, and South America.

Diabetes: Yadav et al. (2007) listed 17 species of commonly used plants for treating diabetes (Table 2.1).

Garg and Garg (2008) listed 113 species used for treating diabetes worldwide but emphasized that

these must be used in conjunction with diet and exercise.

Immunomodulation: Sagrawat and Khan (2007) listed 18 plant species from India with immunomodu-

latory activity. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal has immunomodulatory effects and could be useful

in the treatment of colon cancer (Muralikrishnan, Donda, and Shakeel 2010).

Sexual dysfunction: Yakubu, Akanji, and Oladiji (2007) reviewed the 10 leading plants used to alle-

viate male sexual dysfunction. Yohimbe bark (Pausinystalia yohimbe Pierre ex Beille) contains

tryptamine alkaloid yohimbine and is widely distributed over the counter as an herbal aphrodisiac

73842_C002.indd 15 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

16 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

(Adeniyi et al. 2007). Yohimbe is native to western Africa, including Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo,

and Gabon (Barceloux 2008).

Wound healing: Habbu, Joshi, and Patil (2007) reviewed potential wound healers of plant origin. They

listed 81 plant species with potential to promote wound healing and stated that they "could be of

enormous help in managing and treating various types of wounds."

The last detailed survey of the medicinal plants industry was 20 years ago (Wijesekera 1991).

The main objective of this chapter is to update briey the story of medicinal plants, nature's phar-

macy, from time immemorial to the present day, where scientists have been and are desperate to

nd cures for illnesses such as Alzheimer's, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, HIV/AIDS,

malaria, and many others. The popularity of and demand for plant-based health food and cosmetics

have been increasing over that for allopathic medicines. The collection, preservation, and mainte-

nance of germplasm resources of the few medicinal plants described here will set the stage for the

conservation of plants from the unexplored regions of the world before they become extinct.

2.2 MEDICINAL PLANTS, HERBS, AND CROPS: CONCEPT AND ISSUE

Not only botany, chemistry, and pharmacology, but also anthropology, archeology, linguistics,

history, sociology, comparative religion, and numerous other specialties have contributed appre-

ciably to the search for new biodynamic plants (ethnobotany, or with respect to drug plants, ethno-

pharmacology or pharmacognosy; see, for example, Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003; Samuelsson and

Bohlin 2010; Tyler, Brady, and Robbers 1988).

Medicinal plants are mostly wild, and few have been domesticated or are currently being cul-

tivated. Based on reviewing studies from eight countries (Mexico, Guatemala, Spain, Bulgaria,

Ethiopia, Uganda, the Philippines, and Nepal) in four regions of the world, Aguilar-Støen and

Table 2.1 Medicinal Plants with Antidiabetic Properties

Botanical Name General Indian Name Family

Momordica charantia L. Karela Cucurbitaceae

Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H. Karst. Chirayata Gentianaceae

Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. Gudmar patra Plumbaginaceae

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Methi dana Fabaceae

Plumbago zeylanica L. Chitrak mool Plumbaginaceae

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

(Eugena jambolana Lam.) Jamun Myrtaceae

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Bilva patra Rutaceae

Terminalia chebula Retz. Harad Combretaceae

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Baheda Combretaceae

Phyllanthus emblica L.

(Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) Amla Euphorbiaceae

Curcuma longa L. Haridra Zingiberaceae

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Vijaysar Fabaceae

Berberis aristata DC. Daru harida Berberidaceae

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Indrayan mool Cucurbitaceae

Cyperus rotundus L. Nagarmotha Cyperaceae

Piper longum L. Pippali Piperaceae

Zingiber officinale Roscoe Adrak Zingiberaceae

Source: Adapted from Yadav, H. et al. 2007. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences

105:12–21.

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MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 17

Moe (2007) concluded that medicinal plants have wide distribution across countries and con-

tinents. Most plants are found wild (40.5%) or naturalized (33.3%), while only a small number

(3.3%) are cultivated. Aguilar-Støen and Moe (2007) suggested that conservation and manage-

ment interventions through collaboration among host countries should be introduced. The authors

identied 611 plant species belonging to 132 families; the highest percentage of species reported

were from Fabaceae (10.1%), followed by Asteraceae (9.9%), Poaceae (5.5%), Solanaceae (4.6%),

and Euphorbiaceae (3.5%).

Why do plants have medicinal values? Phytochemists usually identify plant chemicals as either

primary or secondary products; drugs generally belong to the class of secondary metabolites. In

summary, primary compounds reect the DNA sequence (DNA, RNA, and proteins), while second-

ary products are synthesized along metabolic pathways. Plants have a very limited immune response

(often consisting of induced proteins), and they move on an extremely slow time scale in relation to

that of animals. Thus, diseases, herbivores, and competition for resources from other plants must

be avoided while simultaneously promoting dissemination of the species with pollinators and seed

disper sal agents. Se condary constituents a re not nor mally found in a nimals in any appre ciable quan -

tities except in corals and sponges, both of which harbor endophytic algae. A good introduction to

secondary metabolites and their modes of action is provided by van Wyk and Wink (2004).

Plants may produce herbicides to inhibit the growth of competing plants, encompassing a vast

literature termed allelopathy. For example, salicin, a salicyl alcohol glycoside from which salicylic

acid is derived, is a water-soluble phytotoxin (plant poison) that washes off from the leaves of wil-

lows (Salix ) and other plants to the ground below, inhibiting the growth of competing plants (Raskin

1992). Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid, is a semisynthetic drug (a modication of the natural precur-

sors). The natural salicylates have the advantage of being readily absorbed through the skin, and

for that reason they are often used as the active ingredients in creams for stopping muscle pain,

especially by athletes. Salicylates inhibit the production of prostaglandins, important chemicals

involved in the processes of temperature regulation, inammation, and pain; they also help in main-

taining the mucous layer in the gut, preventing the stomach from digesting itself (Moerman 2009).

Plants also produce toxic or repellent chemicals that deter browsing of insects and other herbi-

vores. Nicotine is isolated from tobacco, and pyrethrins are isolated from chrysanthemums (Dev

and Koul 1997). Monarch larvae feed on milkweeds (Asclepias ), which are very toxic to other

animals. The larvae ingest and sequester various cardiac glycosides throughout their bodies, deter-

ring birds from feeding on them (Brower, Brower, and Corvine 1967). In addition, the activity of

herbivores induces increases in protective chemicals (Karban and Baldwin 1997).

Flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids, alkaloids, polylphenols, polysaccharides, and proteins all

aid plants in their survival but may also be sources of drugs. For example, naturally derived anti-

HIV compounds are being isolated and identied from plants (Asres et al. 2005). Biodiversity pro-

vides us not only with potential natural pharmaceuticals, but also with sources for biosynthesis and

genetic engineering (Wrigley et al. 2000).

We emphasize that we should avoid the fallacy of equating "natural" with "safe." Poison ivy

(Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Ku ntze) is a perfect exa mple. Com frey ( Symphytum spp.) conta ins docu -

mented hepatocarcinogens (pyrrolizidine alkaloids) that can also be absorbed through topical applica-

tions, yet comfrey still has very vocal adherents (Awang et al. 1993; Betz et al. 1994; Brauchli et al. 1982;

Culvenor et al. 1980a, 1980b; Furuya and Hikichi 1971; Gomes et al. 2007; Hirono et al. 1978, 1979;

Jaarsma et al. 1989; Westendorf 1992). Culinary herbs in North America must be designated GRAS

(generally recognized as safe) by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration); GRAS protects both the

consumer and distributor. Yet, Tucker and Maciarello (1998) identied ve potentially toxic culinary

herbs without GRAS status and freely sold in the United States: hoja santa/yerba santa/acuyo ( Piper

auritum Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth.), California bay (Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arnott) Nutt),

perilla/shiso ( Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton), pink/red peppercorns ( Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi

and S. molle L.), and epazote /chenopodium (Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakni & Clements).

73842_C002.indd 17 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

18 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

To this list, we may add sassafras root (Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees) with 74–80% safrole, a hepa-

tocarcinogen (Tucker, Maciarello, and Broderick 1994).

We also warn readers about natural materials that come from improper GAP (good agri-

cultural practice), GCP (good collecting practice), and GMP (good manufacturing process).

Pesticide, pathogenic, and packaging contamination have all been recorded (Cho et al. 2007;

Tucker and Maciarello 1993). Heavy metals, particularly lead and cadmium, are also a concern

(Guédon et al. 2008; Krejpcio, Król, and Sionkowski 2007; Liu et al. 2008; Ozkutlu 2008; Saper

et al. 2004, 2008; Sekeroglu et al. 2008). For example, Saper et al. (2004, 2008) reported that

one of the ve Ayurvedic herbal medicine products produced in southern Asia and available in

Boston south Asian grocery stores contains potentially harmful levels of lead, mercury, and/or

arsenic. This study recommended mandatory monitoring of Ayurvedic medicines because users

may be at risk of heavy metal toxicity. While recommendations by individuals, states, and coun-

tries have been issued (Forschungsvereinigung der Arzneimittel-Herstell 2003; Harnischfeger

2000; Mathé and Franz 1999), the legislation for both GAP and GMP is still actively being

pursued and advanced on an international level by FAO (http://www.fao.org/prods/gap/index_

en.htm) and WHO (http://www.who.int/bloodproducts/gmp/en/).

2.3 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF ASIA

Although traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), traditional Indian medicine (TIM), ancient

Egyptian medicine (AEM), and ancient Greek medicine (AGM) have developed independently,

they have many similarities (Chapman and Chomchalow 2005; Patwardhan 2005).

In TIM, two major traditional indigenous systems of medicine are common: Ayurveda in the

north and Siddha in the south, particularly in Tamil Nadu (Krishnan et al. 2008). The Athar Veda,

one of the four Vedas, is the rst and the earliest text dealing with medicines having antibiotics in

India, probably started in the tenth to the twelfth centuries BCE (Chapter 3). Puranic text suggests

a germ is the cause of leprosy, treatable with Ausadhi (medicine). From the description of Ausadhi

as a black, branching entity with dusky patches, it was very likely lichen with antibiotic properties.

Ayurveda (ayu = life; veda = the science) is a scholarly system of medicine that originated in India.

The earliest foundations of Ayurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices,

together with a massive addition of theoretical discourse and conceptualization, new nosologies,

and new therapies dating from about 400 BCE. The most famous text belongs to the school of

Charaka (Chapter 3). Ayurvedic treatment involves diet; recommendations are individualized to a

p er so n's dosha (a unique mix of body and mind in Ayurveda) and the season. Cleansing and detoxi-

cation are done through fasting, enemas, diets, and body treatments. Ayurvedic herbs are triphala,

ashwaghandha, gotu kola, guggul, and boswellia.

India has 15 agroclimatic zones, 47,000 plant species, and 15,000 medicinal plants; these include

7,000 plants used in Ayurveda, 700 in Unani medicine, and 600 in Siddha medicine. Traditional

Siddha medicine is practiced mostly in Tamil Nadu (southeastern India) and is at least 1,000 years

old and uses a large number of herbs (Subbarayappa 1997). Indian systems of medicine have identi-

ed 1,500 medicinal plants, of which 500 species are mostly used in the preparation of drugs. More

than 150 species have been categorized as endangered.

Traditional Unani medicine originated in ancient Greece around 400 BCE. Hippocrates, also

known as the founder of allopathic medicine, is considered to be the rst Unani physician. This

medicine is practiced today in many Middle Eastern and Asian countries, including India, Pakistan,

and Sri Lanka. The literature on TIM is voluminous, but several texts stand out: Ajmal and Ajmal

(2005); Bhattacharjee (2001); Husain et al. (1992); Jain and DeFilips (1991); Kapoor (1990); Nadkarni

(1996); Sarin (1996); Singh, Pandey, and Kumar (2000); Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994); and

Thakur, Puri, and Husain (1989).

73842_C002.indd 18 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 19

TCM diagnosis looks for "patterns of disharmony" or imbalances rather than treating specic

diseases. Restoring balance and harmony usually involves prescribing herbal tea decoctions, acu-

puncture, specic diet counseling, massage, and other therapies including cupping, moxibustion,

exercise ( taichi and qi gong), and meditation.

Chen et al. (2007) evaluated complete data sets of TCM outpatients' reimbursement claims

from 1996 to 2001, including the use of Chinese herbal remedies, acupuncture, and traumatology, a

manipulative therapy in Taiwan. They found 62.5% of patients had used TCM at least once during

the whole 6-year period.

Anderson (1986) reported 121 plant species being used for medicinal use among the Akha tribe

of the remote region of northern Thailand. De Boer and Lamxay (2009) summarized the use of 55

medicinal plants among Brou, Saek, and Kry ethnic groups of Lao People's Democratic Republic

to facilitate childbirth, alleviate menstruation problems, assist recovery after miscarriage, mitigate

postpartum hemorrhage, and aid postpartum recovery and infant care.

Amarasingham et al. (1964) screened 542 species of plants belonging to 295 genera from 89

families from the Malayan ora for the presence of alkaloids and saponins. Of the examined species,

101 showed positive alkaloid tests and 77 were found to contain saponin. Yeung et al. (2009) isolated

seven antimycobacterial compounds from Gentianopsis padulosa (Hook. f.) Ma (Gentianaceae),

which is a perennial herb that grows in the Tibetan plateau. Three compounds showed modest

inhibitory effect against the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis (Trevisan) Lehmann & Neumann

and M. tuberculosis Lehman & Neumann.

The literature on TCM and medicinal plants in Southeast Asia is voluminous, but the follow-

ing texts stand out as important references: Anderson (1993), Bensky and Gamble (1993), Chin and

Keng (1992), Chuakul et al. (1997), Duke and Ayensu (1985), Farnsworth and Bunyapraphatsara

(1992), Hsu (1986), Huang (1999), Keys (1976), Kletter and Kriechbaum (2001), Li (2006), National

Institute for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products (1987), Perry (1980), Su (2003),

Tierra and Tierra (1998), Van Duong (1993), World Health Organization (1997), Wu (2005), and

Yen (1992).

2.4 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

Australian Aboriginal people have been using medicinal plants for treating ailments for thou-

sands of years (Brouwer et al. 2005; Gaikwad et al. 2008; Chapter 11, this volume). In addition to

these native uses, Australian medicinal plants also include those used by European settlers and

other migrant groups, those plants used overseas (but also occurring in the native state in Australia),

and plants with potential for the pharmaceutical industry (Collins et al. 1990; Lassak and McCarthy

2001).

Traditional medicines of the Maori people have been documented by Macdonald et al. (1973),

while Brooker, Cambie, and Cooper (1981) have conducted a broader survey of medicinal plants in

New Zealand.

2.5 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF OCEANIA

The reports on medicinal plants in Oceania are scattered in original research papers. Several

books, however, are available; the authors are Krauss (2001), Staples and Kristiansen (1999),

Whistler (1992a, 1992b, 1996), and Woodley (1991).

Bradacs, Maes, and Heilmann (2010) examined cytotoxic, antiprotozoal, and antimicrobial

activities of 18 plants traditionally used in the South Pacic archipelago Vanuatu. Among 15 plant

extracts with strong cytotoxic effects, one was specic for one cancer cell line. Leaf extracts of

73842_C002.indd 19 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

20 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Acalypha grandis Benth. signicantly affected Plasmodium falciparum Welch. without showing

obvious effects against the other protozoa tested. The leaf extracts of Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq.

exhibited signicant activity against Trypanosoma brucei Plimmer & Bradford. The extracts of

leaves of Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Lam. and stems of Macropiper latifolium (L. f.) Miq. were

active against Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas).

2.6 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF EUROPE

Western traditional herbal medicine has a long history, with the roots of its practice found in

the writings of the Greek physicians, such as Hippocrates and Dioscorides, as well as later in the

works of the Romans, such as Galen. In Western Europe, with the collapse of Roman imperial

authority, medicine became localized; folk medicine supplemented what remained of the preserved

practices in many monastic institutions, which often had a hospital attached. Only a few effective

drugs existed beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based

compounds were popular treatments. Knowledge passed from herbalist to herbalist has accumu-

lated into a signicant body of medicinal knowledge. For example, the use of foxglove in treating

heart failure was developed from the observation of successful treatments of dropsy by a village

wise-woman in 1775 (Norman 1985).

Probably the most comprehensive treatment of medicinal plants in medieval Europe (past the

sixteenth century) was published by P. A. Matthioli (see dedication of this volume), who wrote the

book Herbarium , where more than 1,000 plant species (mostly native in Europe) are described

in detail from the viewpoint of botany, medicinal effects of different plant organs, preparation of

medicines, and methods of application. This book was considered a medieval bestseller and was

published repeatedly in many European languages until the twentieth century.

The literature on European herbs is voluminous and beyond a brief summary here. However,

to indicate the breadth of current use of European herbs, Lange (1998) provides the use, trade, and

conservation, while Bisset and Wichtl (2001) provide a handbook of practice with European herbs.

Lange (1998) found that at least 2,000 medicinal and aromatic plant taxa are used on a com-

mercial basis in Europe, of which two thirds (1200–1300 species) are native to Europe. Wild collec-

tion remains prominent in Albania, Turkey, Hungary, and Spain, and about 90% of the 1200–1300

European plant species are still wild collected. The overall volume of wild-collected material in

Europe is estimated to be at least 20,000–30,000 tons, annually. In the European Union, about 130–140

plant species are cultivated, and the germplasm originates from either wild or cultivated stock. Europe,

as a whole, imported an average of 120,000 tons of medicinal and aromatic plant material while

exporting 70,000 tons, with Germany as a leading country in both import and export. Germany

also appointed a Special Expert Committee of the German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical

Devices to produce the Commission E Monographs (Blumenthal et al. 1998, 2000).

2.7 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF AFRICA

Traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) in Africa are based on holistic beliefs, systems, soci-

eties, and ancestors. Table 2.2 shows the relative ratios of traditional practitioners and medically

trained doctors in relation to the whole population in some African countries (see Busia 2005).

Herbal medicines are widely used and are the integral part of African traditional medical prac-

tices because they are cheaper than allopathic medicines. Incorporation of traditional medicines

and Western medicines was suggested for the African countries as being followed in India and

Southeast Asian countries including China and Vietnam (Busia 2005). Africa is extremely diverse

and thus the literature on medicinal herbs is scattered; however, the following texts and articles

73842_C002.indd 20 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 21

stand out: Ayensu (1978), De Smet (1999), Dokosi (1998), Fortin, Lô, and Maynart (1990), Iwu (1993),

Kokwaro (1976), Neuwinger (1996), Simon et al. (2007), van Wyk, van Oudtschoorn, and Gericke

(1997), Visser (1975), and von Koenen (1996).

Tabuti, Kukunda, and Waako (2010) documented 88 plant species used by traditional TMPs

in the treatment of tuberculosis in Uganda. Seven species (Eucalyptus spp., Warburgia salutaris

(G. Bertrol.) Chiov., Ocimum gratissimum L. ( O. suave Willd.), Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl.,

Momordica foetida Schumach., Persea americana Mill., and Acacia hockii De Wild.) were recom-

mended for treatment by three or more TMPs. These authors suggested that TMPs in Uganda are

playing a signicant role in the primary health care and the authorities are integrating the allopathic

and traditional medicine systems.

Persinos, Quimby, and Schermerhorn (1964) examined medicinal properties of 10 plant species

from Nigeria; however, some of the species were growing not only in Nigeria but also in other parts

of Africa. These species' descriptions follow:

Annona senegalensis • Pers.: The growing range for A. senegalensis extends from Cape Verde Isla nds

to Gambia, northern Nigeria, and Sudan. The root and bark are used as a vermifuge, as an antidote

for snakebites, as an insecticide, and as a treatment for sleeping sickness and dysentery. The pow-

dered leaves are used for treating Guinea-worm sores.

Boswellia odorata • Hu tch. : Th e g row in g r ang e fo r B. odorata i s fro m t he I vor y C oast to t he Ca me roo ns

and Ubangi-Shari. In Adamawa, eating of the fresh bark causes vomiting within a few hours and

relieves the symptoms of giddiness and palpitations. A mixture of the root and bark is used as an

antidote for arrow poison. The gum has a dual use as a stomachic and as a treatment for syphilis.

Canarium scweinfurthii • Engl.: The growing range for C. scweinfurthii is from Senegal to Angola,

the Sudan, and eastern Africa. In Nigeria, the oleoresin is used at night by hunters as "bush candle"

ares. In Liberia, the exudate is used as pitch or is burned black, and the carbon is used in tattooing.

The bark is also used for colic, hemorrhoids, jaundice, dysentery, cough, chest pain, and cancers.

Jatropha curcas • L.: Jatropha curcas has an American origin and was introduced by the Portuguese;

it is now cultivated in West Africa and extends as far as Rhodesia. Many uses are recorded for the

leaves; an infusion mixed with lime juice is employed to reduce fever when taken internally and

used externally as a wash. The Bakwiri people of the Cameroon Mountains drink an infusion of

leaves with beer as a diuretic for rheumatism. In southern Nigeria, a decoction of leaves is used rec-

tally as remedy for jaundice. Leaves are crushed and mixed with hot water, or they are burned and

their ashes are applied to the sores.

Daniellia oliveri • (Rolf.) Hutch. & Dalziel.: In Sierra Leone and Guinea, the bark of D. oliveri is used

in making beehives. In other parts of Africa, the resin is used for polishing furniture. An infusion

of the powdered bark and buds is taken for headaches, migraines, and feverish pains. A decoction of

Table 2.2 Doctor–Patient Ratios in a Few Countries of Africa

Country Doctor:Patient TMP:Patient

Ghana 1:400 (Kwahu district) 1:12,000

Kenya 1:833 (Urban—Mathare) 1:897 (Urban—Mathare)

Malawi 1:50,000 1:138

Mozambique 1:50,000 1:200

Nigeria 1:110 1:16,400

South Africa 1:1639 (overall) 1:700–1200 (Venda);

1:17,400 (homeland areas) It is Doctor: Patient ratio

Swaziland 1:10,000 1:100

Tanzania 1:33,000 1:350-450

Uganda 1:25,000 1:708

Zimbabwe 1:6,250 1:234 (urban); 1:956 (rural)

Source: Busia, K. 2005. Phytotherapy Research 19:919–923.

73842_C002.indd 21 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

22 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

the leaves and bark relieves colic and toothache. The Yorubas of western Nigeria use gum for treat-

ing gonorrhea by chewing and swallowing it to produce a purgative action.

Dichrostachys cinerea • (L.) Wight. & Arn. (D. nutans ( Per s.) Be nt h.): Dichrostachys cinerea is

found in the savanna and the transition forest throughout tropical Africa, in Rhodesia, and in parts

of South Africa. In Sudan, a decoction of the root is used to treat syphilis and leprosy. In Senegal

and Guinea, the same decoction is employed as a purgative and in Sierra Leone the bark has an

application as a vermifuge in treating elephantiasis.

Pterocarpus erinaceus • Lam.: Pterocarpus erinaceus is found from Senegal to Chad and Gabon. A

decoction of the bark and resin makes a good astringent for use in severe diarrhea and dysentery,

while a decoction from the terminal leaf of a stem is used in the Ivory Coast for fever.

Phoenix dactylifera • L.: Phoenix dactylifera grows widely in the tropics and subtropics. Fruit is

mixed with capsicum pepper and added to beer to make it less intoxicating. In Morocco, the plant

is used for tanning.

Crossopteryx febrifuga • (G. Don.) Benth.: Crossopteryx febrifuga is widely distributed in tropical

Africa from Senegal to the Sudan and from eastern Africa to Rhodesia. In Sierra Leone, the bark is

used as a cough medicine. In northern Nigeria, it is used against gonorrhea and worms. In Guinea,

after being pulverized and mixed with rice, it is used as an astringent in treating diarrhea, dysentery,

and fever.

Sarcocephalus latifolius • (Sm.) Bruce (S. esculentus Afzel. ex Sabine): An infusion of leaves and

roots of S. latifolius is given internally to children for fever. In Liberia, the leaves are mixed with

Guinea grains and taken for diarrhea and dysentery. In Sierra Leone, a decoction of the leaves is

used against constipation.

As outlined by Eltohami (1997), the climate of Sudan ranges from completely arid to tropical

zones, with a wide range of bioclimatic regions, from almost barren deserts in the north to the

tropical rain forests in the extreme south of the country. Thus, this country is rich in oras. Aloe

crassipes Baker, found in northern and eastern Sudan, is used in small doses as a laxative. Balanites

aegyptiacus (L.) Delile is native to Africa; the roots contain steroidal sapogenins, whereas the bulb

contains sugars and saponins. The leaves and fruits contain disogenin; kernels are high (30–40%) in

oil and have valuable protein content. Extracts of fruit and bark are lethal to snails and water eas.

Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. subsp. proximus (A. Rich) Maire & Weiller (C. proximus

(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf.) is native to southern Egypt and northern Sudan and contains a bitter

oleo resin, a toxic volatile oil and a saponin used extensively in indigenous medicine as a diuretic,

colic painkiller, and antipyretic in fever.

Boswellia papyrifera (Delile ex Caill.) Hochst, a dry-land tree species native to Ethiopia, Eritrea,

and Sudan, is used as incense that is burned in many churches worldwide; it is also used as a gum or

oil in a number of applications, such as modern perfumery, traditional medicine, pharmaceuticals,

fumigation powders, fabrication of varnishes, adhesives, painting, and chewing gum industries. It is

also used for avor in the food industry (e.g., bakery, milk products, and different alcoholic and soft

drin ks). Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile is native to Africa and the Indian subcontinent; it is used as a

demulcent or for conditions such as gonorrhea, leucorrhoea, diarrhea, dysentery, or diabetes. It is also

styptic and astringent. In Siddha medicine, the gum is used to consolidate otherwise watery semen.

Addo-Fordjour et al. (2008) examined medicinal properties of 52 plant species belonging to

47 genera and 22 families. The Fabaceae contained the most species. The medicinal plants were

grouped into ve growth forms: trees (63.5%), climbers (15.4%), herbs (11.5%), shrubs (9.6%), and

mainly leaves (40.3%). Most of the traditional practitioners (75%) did not have any professional

training; 56% of herbalists did not replant after harvesting. The majority of the herbalists did not

keep records on diseases treated, the plants used, or the cultivation of the medicinal plants, and

harvesting methods were destructive.

Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. (2008) examined plants used in the treatment of fungal and bacte-

rial infections in and around Queen Elizabeth Biosphere Reserve, western Uganda. They studied

67 medicinal plants distributed among 27 families and 51 genera that were used for treating fungal

73842_C002.indd 22 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 23

and bacterial infections. The medicinal plants used for the treatment of fungal and bacterial infec-

tions were harvested from wild/natural ecosystems (67.2%). The medicinal plants used for treating

herpes zoster were obtained through cultivation (55.6%); the domesticated medicinal plants for treat-

ing herpes zoster are mainly food crops and are in high demand as nutritional supplements, such as

Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, Capsicum frutescens L., Avena sativa L., Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f., and

Carica papaya L. The highest number of species was from the Lamiaceae (13) and Asteraceae (11)

families. The most commonly used plant parts were leaves (88.1%), roots (23.9%), and barks (10.5%).

Okigbo, Eme, and Ogbogu (2008) reviewed biodiversity and conservation of medicinal and

aromatic plants of Africa. They estimated about 215,634,000 hectares of closed forest areas in

Africa; the annual loss of forest is reported to be 1% per year due to deforestation. We believe that

many medicinal and other genetic resources will become extinct before they can be collected and

documented. Okigbo et al. (2008) estimated that 30% of the plants will be lost by the year 2040.

However, about 70% of the wild plants in North Africa are known to have potential value in the

elds of medicine, biotechnology and crop improvement.

According to Okigbo et al. (2008), phytomedicine used in Africa has demonstrated reduction in

excessive mortality, morbidity, and disability due to diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tubercu-

losis, sickle-cell anemia, diabetes, and mental disorders. Ali, Wabel, and Blunden (2005) described

the use of Hibiscus sabdariffa L., used for making cold and hot drinks (tea), to treat high blood

pressure, liver diseases, cancer, and fever; it also has antifungal, antibacterial, and antiparasitic

properties. It is native to the Old World tropics, is commonly known as roselle or red sorrel, and is

widely grown in Central and West Africa and Southeast Asia.

Dièye et al. (2008) surveyed the use of medicinal plants of Senegal for the treatment of diabetes;

they interviewed 220 patients and found that the most frequently used plants were Moringa oleifera

Lam. (65.9%) and Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. (43.2%). The principal suppliers of plants

were tradesmen in the market (66.8%) and traditional therapists (5%).

2.8 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

Ancient Egyptian medicine, rst recorded from 3100 BCE, was intimately tied to the rites of

magic (Halioua and Ziskind 2005; Manniche 1989; Nunn 1996). Assyrian texts, dating from ca.

2000 BCE, are well documented by Thompson (1924, 1949) and include the concepts of diagnosis,

prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. Greek and Roman medicines were inuenced

by the Assyrian and Egyptian medicinal traditions, as well as by local folklore, well represented by

what became the vade mecum of the later physicians, the herbal of Dioscorides (Beck 2005). Jewish

medicine was, at rst, an amalgamation of Egyptian and Mesopotamian medicines, but it was later

overshadowed by Hellenistic medicine (Jacob and Jacob 1993). Persian medicine provided a link of

Europe and the Middle East with China and India (Laufer 1919).

Muslim physicians contributed signicantly to the eld of medicine, including anatomy, oph-

thalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences. The

translation of the Greek and Roman medical practices into Arabic set the template for Islamic

medicine. Quantication of medicines by mathematics developed the strength of drugs and a system

that could allow a doctor to determine, in advance, the most critical days of a patient's illness. The

literature in English on medicinal plants from this region is scattered, but several texts are available

by the following authors: Ahmed, Honda, and Miki (1979); Bellakhdar et al. (1982, 1991); Boulos

(1983); Ghazanfar (1994); Miki (1976); and Rizk and El-Ghazaly (1995).

Ahmad et al. (2009) listed 32 medicinal plants belonging to 30 genera of 23 families described

in the Qur'an and Ahadith. Health is dened as a state of the "body" (made up of the four elements:

earth, air, water, and re); there is an equilibrium in the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile,

and black bile), and the functions of the body are normal in accordance to its own "temperament"

73842_C002.indd 23 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

24 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

(cold, hot, wet, dry) and the environment. When the equilibrium of the humors is disturbed and

functions of the body are abnormal, that state is disease.

Ghazanfar and Al-Sabahi (1993) described the use and chemical composition of 35 native and

21 cultivated plants in Oman used for curing a wide spectrum of diseases, from the common cold

and fever to paralysis and diabetes. The ora of northern and central Oman consists of 600 plant

species, the majority of which occur in the mountains and foothills. Of the native ora, Ghazanfar

and Al-Sabahi recorded 35 species (ca. 6%) that are used medicinally. A large number of cultivated

species are used for medicinal purposes. These species are used in parts of southwest Asia, espe-

cially India and Pakistan. There has been a long history of sea trade between Oman and India, and it

is likely that many of the medicinal cultivated plants, garlic, lemon, and henna were imported from

India for their medicinal values.

2.9 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE AMERICAS

Traditional medicine, a general term for the system of healing used by all Native American

nations or tribes that has been practiced in some cases for at least 10,000 years, is linked to phi-

losophy, religion, and spirituality, and treatments aim to balance the physical, emotional, mental,

and spiritual components of a person. This involves a tribal healer, also known as a medicine man

or medicine woman, and may involve the patient's family or the entire community. Treatments

include prescribing medicinal herbal preparations, ritual purication or purging, and traditional

smudging or burning of certain herbs, as well as chanting and prayers. Craker and Gardner (2006)

evaluated an American perspective on medicinal plants and tomorrow's pharmacy and concluded

that "American pharmacies of the future may well support both conventional and alternative sys-

tems enabling the consumer and medical practitioner to choose the best medicine for the medical

condition." Craker, Gardner, and Etter (2003) summarized herb and medicinal plant cultivation

in the United States from 1903 to 2003 and remarked: "Standardization of bioactive constituents

and quality processing will undoubtedly be necessary before herbal remedies become mainstream

medicines in the U.S."

Moerman (1977) listed 1,288 different medicinal plant species used by the Native North

Americans, from 531 different genera from 118 different families. These plants were used in 48

different cultures in 4,869 different ways. Outside North America, the literature is scattered and

not summarized, in part reecting the diversity of the peoples. However, books by the following

authors are available: Ayensu (1981); Balick, Elisabetsky, and Laird (1996); Breedlove and Laughlin

(1993); Cáceres (1996); de Montellano, (1990); Lans (2003); Lorenzi and Abreu Matos (2000);

Meléndez (1945); Mors, Rizzini, and Pereira (2000); Roersch (1994); Schultes and Raffauf (1990);

and Seaforth, Adams, and Sylvester (1983).

Coe and Anderson (1996) examined the presence of bioactive compounds (alkaloids and gly-

cosides) in 229 species, representing 177 genera and 72 families, used for medicinal purposes by

the Garifuna people of Eastern Nicaragua. Of those examined, 113 species contained at least one

of the bioactive compounds. The remaining 116 species were tested for alkaloids, and 51 contained

alkaloids. Thus, 72% of species used by Garifuna natives have at least one medicinal compound.

Martín (1983) examined 131 species from 10 sites in Central Chile that have been used in popu-

lar medicine; the list included pteridophytes (2 families, 2 species) and angiosperms (52 families

and 122 species of dicots; 3 families and 7 species of monocots). The number of native plants is

equal to the number of exotic plants. Cultivated plants are as commonly used as wild plants. The

families with greater number of species are Asteraceae (17), Rosaceae (12), and Labiatae (9). Some

species, such as Senecio pycnanthus Phil., Quinchamalium majus Brongn., Calceolaria thyrsiora

Graham, and Myoschilos oblongum Ruiz & Pav., are extensively collected by the inhabitants and

are thus in danger of extinction.

73842_C002.indd 24 6/13/11 7:14:35 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 25

Mitchell and Ahmad (2006) reviewed medicinal plant research from 1948 to 2001 at the

University of the West Indies, Jamaica. At least 334 plant species growing in Jamaica contained

medicinal properties, and 193 were tested for their bioactivity. Only 80 possessed reasonable bioac-

tivity; natural products were identied from 44 plants, and 29 of these natural products were bioac-

tive. Patents have been obtained and drugs have been developed.

Darshan and Doreswamy (2004) reported patents obtained on anti-inammatory drugs from

38 plants. These plants contain polysaccharides, terpenes, cucurminoids, and alkaloids and have

potential in alleviating inammatory diseases, including arthritis, rheumatism, acne, skin allergy,

and ulcers. Chemicals that alleviate swelling are derived from plants including grape, boswellia,

turmeric, devil's claw, and essential oils from clove, eucalyptus, rosemary, lavender, mint, myrrh,

millefolia, and pine. Plants with polysaccharides have been reported to be the most potent in curing

inammatory diseases.

Medicinal plants from South America, particularly Brazil (Mans, da Rocha, and Schwartsmann

2000), have been screened for curing cancer. dos Santos Júnior et al. (2010) examined 51 plant spe-

cies from Brazil against four tumor cell lines: B16 (murine skin), HL-60 (human leukemia), MCF-7

(human breast), and HCT-8 (human colon). The most active extracts against the tumor cells were

those obtained from Lantana fuscata K. Koch. Copaifera longsdorfi Desf., and Momordica charantia

L. Endringer et al. (2010) reported that several Brazilian plants are promising sources as cancer

chemoprevention agents, particularly Hancornia speciosa Gomes, Jacaranda caroba (Vell.) DC.,

Mansoa hirsute DC., and Solanum paniculatum L. De Mesquita et al. (2009) examined the cytotoxic

potential of 412 extracts (from Brazilian cerrado plants used in traditional medicine that belonged to

21 families) against tumor cell lines in culture. Twenty-eight of 412 extracts demonstrated a substan-

tial antiproliferative effect; 85% inhibition of cell proliferation, at 50 µ g/mL, against one or more cell

lines was observed. Extracts were obtained from plants belonging to several families: Anacardiaceae,

Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Clusiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Simaroubaceae,

and Zingiberaceae.

Plant-based antimalaria medicines are being developed at many places, but malaria-transferring

mosquitoes are mutating at a much faster rate than identication of the drugs, and sometimes drug

discovery takes about 10–15 years. The global resistance prevailing against the two most widely

used antimalaria drugs—chloroquine and the antifolate sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine—is a major

dilemma (Ridley 2002). Quinine from Cinchona calisaya Wedd. (C. ofcinalis Auct., non L.), a

native of the Amazon rain forest, was the rst European medicine used to treat malaria; artemisin

from Artemisia annua L. later supplanted it but is rapidly becoming ineffective.

2.10 MODERN PLANT-BASED MEDICINE

Table 2.3 provides an historical perspective of important pharmaceutical drug discoveries since

1785. A number of compounds isolated and identied from plants have been summarized in books,

bulletins, peer-reviewed papers, and popular articles (Table 2.4). Modern medicine is a multidisci-

plinary eld, but drug discovery was originally plant based (Drews 2000; Fabricant and Farnsworth

2001; Sneader 2005). Drug research was revolutionized in the nineteenth century and beyond by

advances in chemistry and laboratory techniques and equipment; old ideas of infectious disease epi-

demiology were replaced with newer ideas from bacteriology, biochemistry, and virology. The mod-

ern era of medicine really began with Robert Koch's postulates in 1890 concerning the transmission

of disease by bacteria, and then with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928.

Table 2.5 estimates 287,685 species belonging to 14,066 genera compiled from several

sources. This table suggests that Fabaceae (Leguminosae) contains 19,400 species while Poaceae

(Gramineae) includes 10,000 species. In his book Plant Alkaloids, Raffauf (1996) estimate 260,145

species, including ferns, belonging to 13,209 genera worldwide. He tested 19,000 species and found

73842_C002.indd 25 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

26 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

alkaloids in 3,660 species (19%) from 315 families. Plants of the family Papaveraceae are very high

in alkaloids; by contrast Rosaceae and Lamiaceae lack appreciable levels of alkaloids.

Cardiac glycosides and sapogenins are found in the Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Liliaceae,

Moraceae, Ranunculaceae, Scrophulariaceae (s.l.), and other families. Cardenolides have been used

in primitive societies as arrow and dart poisons. Steroidal sapogenins are also known for the arrow

poisons, and the most conspicuous genera are Agave, Yucca , and Dioscorea.

Anthraquinones, phenolic compounds, essential oils, and many other organic constituents of

angiosperms are most certain to increase greatly in number and novelty when sophisticated meth-

odologies are applied (Schultes 1972).

Busia (2005) reviewed the literature and reported over 15,000 compounds of signicant thera-

peutic benets, such as antibiotics, antimalarial drugs, analgesics, anti-inammatory steroids, car-

diotonics, hypotensives, tranquilizers, and sedatives. These compounds were isolated from about

200 plant species and most of the plants were of tropical origin. Plant-based medicines are still

being used by up to 80% of the population in Africa, and nearly 25% of modern-medicine prescrip-

tion drugs are derived from plants rst used in traditional medicine (Fowler 2006).

Once science had a grasp on the interactions between drugs and the body, it became possible to

synthesize natural compounds through chemistry. Then science and tradition diverged. In the rst

edition of the American Pharmacopoeia , published in 1820, 70% of drugs were plant based. In the

1960 edition, 5.3% were of plant origin and the science of ethnobotany developed—the winning

combination of drugs and plants (Turner 1973).

2.11 LOOKING FORWARD

A large number of plant resources worldwide are unexplored, and only a fraction is being

maintained in germplasm banks. International organizations, national institutes, and private drug

industries worldwide are exploring and collecting plants, particularly from the tropical rain for-

ests (Table 2.6). For example, the International Development Research Center in Ottawa, Canada

(http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-1-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html), is heavily engaged in preserving biodiversity

of medicinal plants of Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These institutes are collecting

medicinal plants and are examining chemical components and testing ingredients for curing dis-

eases in humans and animals, as well as developing plant-based (bio) insecticides and pesticides for

controlling pests and pathogens, respectively, of economically important crops.

We are alarmed over the loss of plant diversity, particularly endemic plants, which in turn will

reduce the potential sources of plant-derived drugs. The highest endemic number of plants is in

Table 2.3 Some Pharmaceutical Discoveries, 1785–1987

Year Therapeutic Drug Type Drug

1785 Inotropic agent Cardioglycoside Digitoxin

1796 Smallpox vaccine — —

1803 Analgesic Narcotic Morphine

1867 Antiseptic Phenol Carbolic acid

1884 Analgesic Alkaloid Phenazone

1910 Antisyphillitic Arsenical Salversan

1935 Bactericide Sulfonamides Sulfamidochrysoidine

1942 Bactericide Antibiotic Penicillin

1987 Recombinant DNA Hormone Humulin

Source: Craker, L. E., and Z. E. Gardner. 2006. In Medicinal and aromatic

plants, ed. R. J. Bogers, L. E. Craker, and D. Lange, 29–41. Dordrecht,

Netherlands: Springer.

73842_C002.indd 26 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 27

Table 2.4 Plant-Based Drug Discovery

Botanical Name Medicine Family Use Native

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Catechin, epicatechin, d-pinitol,

dicatechin, quercetin, gallic acid,

procyanidin

Fabaceae Demulcent, gonorrhea, antimosquito

larvae, leucorrhoea, diarrhea,

dysentery, or diabetes

Africa and Indian subcontinent

Achillea millefolium L. Isovaleric acid, salicylic acid,

coumarin, tannin Asteraceae Diaphoretic, astringent, tonic,

thrombosis, ulcers, measles Eurasia

Aframomum melegueta K.

Schum. (6)-Paradol, (6)-gingerol,

(6)-shogaol Zingiberaceae Body pains, rheumatism Tropical West Africa

Ammi majus L. Xanthotoxin Umbelliferae Vitiligo and psoriasis Egypt

Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromelain Bromeliaceae Nematicidal South America

Annona senegalensis Pers. ent-kaurenoids Annonaceae Vermifuge, snakebites, insecticide,

sleeping sickness, dysentery Cape Verde Islands to Gambia,

northern Nigeria, and Sudan

Artemisia annua L. Artemisinin Asteraceae Malaria Temperate Asia–China

Aspalathus linearis (Burm. f.) Antioxidant Fabaceae Rooibos tea—no caffeine South Africa

R. Dahlgren aspalatin, nothofagin antispasmodic, insomnia

Atropa belladonna L. Atropine Solanaceae Pupil dilator Europe, North Africa, and western

Asia

Avena sativa L. Oatmeat extract Poaceae Lower cholesterol Near East

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Azadirachtin Meliaceae Herpes, insecticide, antibacterial,

antiviral, contraceptive, sedative,

cosmeceutical

India

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Sapogenins, diosgenin Zygophyllaceae Lethal to snails and water eas,

headache Africa

Boswellia papyrifera (Delile

ex Caill.) Hochtst. Oil, incense Burseraceae Stimulant Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan

Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinoids (cannabinol,

cannabigerol, cannabichromene,

tetrahydrocannabivarin)

Cannabaceae Illicit drugs, stimulant, pain reliever,

anticancer and HIV/AIDS South and central Asia

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 27 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

28 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.4 Plant-Based Drug Discovery (Continued)

Botanical Name Medicine Family Use Native

Castanospermum australe A.

Cunn & C. Fraser ex Hook. Castanospermine, celgosivir,

combretastatin Fabaceae Chronic HCV infection Australia, Vanuatu, and New

Caledonia

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.

Don Vinblastine and vincristine Apocynaceae Diabetes, malaria, Hodgkin's leukemia,

antineoplastic Madagascar periwinkle is a native of

Madagascar, in India, known as

Nithyakalyani

Cephalotaxus harringtonia

Knight ex J. Forbes) K.

Koch.

Homoharringtonine Taxaceal Chronic myeloid leukemia Japan

Chondrodendron

tomentosum Ruiz & Pav. (+)–Tubocurarine Menispermaceae Arrow poison Central and South America

Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.)

Roberty Complex oil Poaceae Essential oil—perfumes India

Cinchona pubescens Vahl. Quinine Rubiaceae Antimalaria Costa Rica, Venezuela, Ecuador,

Peru

Citrullus colocynthis (L.)

Schrad. Phytosterol, glycoside Cucurbitaceae Purgative, laxative, diabetes North Africa, Iran to India and

tropical Asia

Coffea arabica L. Caffeine Rubiaceae Stimulant Yemen, Arabian Peninsula, Ethiopia,

Sudan

Colchicum autumnale L. Colchicine Colchicaceae Gout South and Center of Europe

Cordia verbenacea DC. Artemetin, beta-sitosterol,

alpha-humulene, and beta-

caryophyllene

Boraginaceae Anti-inammatory, antiulcer, and

antirheumatic Brazil

Crataegus laevigata (Poir.)

DC. Arterio-K Rosaceae Cardiac drug Northern Europe, Asia, and North

America

Curcuma longa L. Curcumin Zingiberaceae Antioxidants, antiparasitic,

antispasmodic, anticancer, anti-

inammatory, gastrointestinal

India, China

Cymbopogon proximus

(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf Piperitone, volatile oil Poaceae Neurotic disease North Africa

73842_C002.indd 28 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 29

Datura stramonium L. Toxiferine Solanaceae Relaxant in surgery South America

Digitalis purpurea L. Digitoxin Plantaginaceae Cardiac drug Africa

Digoxin Arterial brillation Native to most of Europe

Dioscorea composita Hemsl. Diosgenin Dioscoreaceae Steroid hormones Asia and South America

Duboisia myoporoides R. Br. Atropine, hyoscyamine,

scopolamine Solanaceae Stimulant, euphoric, antispasmodic,

analgesic Australia

Erythroxylum coca Lam. Cocaine Erythroxylaceae Local anesthetic Northwestern South America

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Oil Myrtaceae Antimicrobial, biopesticide Australia

Euphorbia peplus L. Ingenol 3-angelate Euphorbiaceae Warts, actinic keratosis Europe, northern Africa, western

Asia

Filipendula ulmaria (L.)

Maxim. Aspirin–salicin Rosaceae Common cold and fever Europe and western Asia

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Anethole Apiaceae Used in gripe water, digestive disorders,

glaucoma Mediterranean

Galega officinalis L. Guanidine Fabaceae Type II diabetes Middle East

Ginkgo biloba L. Quercetinl, kaempferol

isorhamnetin, terpenoid

lactones, ginkgolides A, B, C,

bilobalide

Ginkgoraceae Alzheimer's China

Glycine max (L.) Merr. Sitosterol, isoavones, tamoxifen,

genistein Fabaceae Cancers, estrogen China

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhizin, saponin, asparagine Fabaceae Asthma, bronchitis, coughs, cancers Mediterranean, central though

southwest Asia

Guarea guidonia (L.) Sleumer Diterpenoid, labdane, clerodane Meliaceae Antimalaria, insecticide South America

Hamamelis virginiana L. Optrex Hamamelidaceae Anti-inammatory, antioxidant North America

Harpagophytum procumbens

(Burch.) DC. ex Meisn. Harpagoside, beta-sitosterol Pedaliaceae Analgesic, sedative, diuretic, arthritis South Africa

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Protocatechuic acid Malvaceae Antihypertensive Old World tropics

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 29 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

30 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.4 Plant-Based Drug Discovery (Continued)

Botanical Name Medicine Family Use Native

Hoodia currorii (Hook.)

Decne. Chlorogenic acid, sterol glycoside Asclepiadaceae Hypertension, diabetes, stomachache Kalahari, South Africa, Namibia,

Angola, Botswana

Huperzia serrata (Thunb.)

Trevis. Huperzine A Lycopodiaceae Nutraceutical, Alzheimer's India and Southeast Asia

Hydrastis canadensis L. Gingivitol Ranunculaceae Cardiac drug, antihemorrhagic,

anti-inammatory North America

Hyoscyamus niger L. Hyoscyamine Solanaceae Anticholinergic Eurasia

Hypericum perforatum L. Hyperforin Clusiaceae Antidepressant, positive effect to control

Parkinson's; many side effects Europe

Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.Xanthines Aquifoliaceae Antiobesity, anticarcinogenic South America

Laburnum anagyroides Medik. Cytisine Fabaceae Tobacco dependence Central and southern Europe

Leucojum aestivum L. Galanthamine Amaryllidaceae Cholinesterase inhibitor Central and southern Europe

Linum usitatissimum L. Linseed oil Linaceae Nutritional supplement, anticancer,

purgative Central Asia and Mediterranean

Lophophora williamsii (Lem.)

J. Coult. Mescaline Cactaceae Neurasthenia, asthma, hysteria; illegal

drugs South America

Mangifera indica L. Mangiferin (Vimang® ) Anacardiaceae Antioxidant, antiviral, chemopreventive,

hemochromatosis India

Melissa officinalis L. Rosmarinic acid Lamiaceae Mosquito repellent, antibacterial,

antiviral Southern Europe, Mediterranean

Mentha canadensis L. Menthol, methanolic Lamiaceae Anesthetic, antispasmodic, antiseptic,

aromatic Temperate regions of Europe and

western and central Asia, east to

the Himalayas and eastern Siberia,

and North America

Momordica charantia

Descourt. Momordicin, lectin Cucurbitaceae Dyspepsia and constipation,

antimalarial; controls diabetes Indian subcontinent

Mondia whitei (Hook. f.)

Skeels Alkaloid, 5-chlopropacin Apocynaceae Appetite stimulation, gonorrhea,

postpartum bleeding, pediatric asthma Tropical Africa from Guinea through

Cameroon to eastern Africa

73842_C002.indd 30 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 31

Ocimum tenuiorum L. Oleanolic acid, ursolic acid,

rosmarinic acid, eugenol,

carvacrol, linalool,

β-caryophyllene

Lamiaceae Common colds, headaches, stomach

disorders, inammation, heart

disease, malaria, diabetes,

antibacterial

India

Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. Protopanaxadiol Araliaceae Cancer China and Korea

Panax quinquefolius L. Ginsenosides Araliaceae Diabetes, decreases fever, stomach

pain, hemorrhage North America

Papaver somniferum L. Codeine, morphine Papaveraceae Analgesic Southeastern Europe, western Asia

Pausinystalia johimbe (K.

Schum.) Pierre ex Beille) Yohimbine Rubiaceae Depression, high blood pressure, high

blood sugar Nigeria, Cameroon, and the Congo

Pilocarpus jaborandi Vahl. Pilocarpine Rutaceae Glaucoma Neotropics of South America

Pimpinella anisum L. Anethole, phytoestrogen Apiaceae Epilepsy, insomnia, lice, scabies,

intestinal bacteria Eastern Mediterranean and

Southwest Asia

Piper methysticum G. Forst. Kavain Piperaceae Sedative, soar throat, soft drink Polynesia

Podophyllum peltatum L. Podophyllin Berberidaceae Cathartic, insecticide, rheumatism,

cancer Eastern North America

Polygala senega L. Senega uid extract, saponin

glycosides, polygalic acid,

senegin

Polygalaceae Anti-inammatory North America

Prunus africana (Hook. f.)

Kalkman Phytosterol, triterpene esters,

pentacyclic acids, aliphatic

alcohols

Rosaceae Chest and stomach pain, gonorrhea,

inammations, kidney diseases,

benign prostrate therapy

South Africa, tropical Africa, eastern

Africa

Rauwola serpentina (L.)

Benth. ex. Kurzo Reserpine Apocynaceae Antihypertensive Tropical regions (commonly known

as Indian snakeroot or

Sarpagandha)

Ricinus communis L. Ricin Euphorbiaceae Laxative, purgative, cathartic Southeastern Mediterranean basin,

eastern Africa, and India

Salix alba L. Salicin Salicaceae Aches, pains; reduces fevers Europe, western and central Asia

Sanguinaria canadensis L. Sanguinarine, chelerythrine Papaveraceae Gastrointestinal ailments United States of America

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 31 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

32 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.4 Plant-Based Drug Discovery (Continued)

Botanical Name Medicine Family Use Native

Santalum album L. Sandalwood Santalaceae Chronic bronchitis, gonorrhea, oil

against Eberthella typhosa and

Escherichia coli, incense,

cosmeceutical—wood paste

Indian peninsula, South Pacic,

northern Australia

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi Flavocoxid Lamiaceae Osteoarthritis China

Senna alexandrina Mill. Glycoside Fabaceae Laxative Egypt

Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)

Bertoni Steviosides Asteraceae Natural sweetener Paraguay

Styrax tonkinensis (Pierre)

Craib ex Hartwich Benzoin Styracaceae Oral disinfectant Southeast Asia

Syzygium aromaticum (L.)

Merr. & L. M. Perry Eugenol Myrtaceae Toothache Moluccas (Spice) Islands, Indonesia;

Ayurvedic and Chinese medicines;

spice

Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart.

ex DC.) Standl. Lapachol Bignoniaceae Anticancer, antibiotic, disinfectant;

higher dose is toxic Trinidad and Tobago, Mexico,

Argentina

Taxus brevifolia Nutt. Taxol Taxaceae Antineoplastic Pacic Northwest of North America

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex

DC.) Wight & Arn. Glycosides, antioxidant Combretaceae Coronary artery disease, anti-

inammatory India

Theobroma cacao L. Theobromine Sterculiaceal Heart healthy Deep tropical region of America

Thymus vulgaris L. Thymol Lamiaceae Antibacteria and antifungal Southern Europe

Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex

Schult.) DC. Rhynchophylline Rubiaceae Anti-inammatory, antioxidant,

anticancer South and Central America

Viscum album L. Iscador Viscaceal Cancer Europe and western, southern Asia

Voacanga africana Stapf Vincamine, voacangine, vobasine,

ibogaine, vobtusine Apocynaceae Leprosy, diarrhea, edema, madness,

diuretic, asthma, anticancer West Africa from Senegal to the

Sudan and south to Angola

Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingerone, shogaol, gingerol Zingiberaceae Arthritis, lowering blood thinning and

cholesterol, treating chemotherapy,

diarrhea, nausea

South Asia

Source: Farnswoth and Soejarto, 1985; Fowler, 2006; Aftab and Vieira, 2010; da Silva et al., 2000; Noble, 1990; O'Sullivan-Coyne, 2009; Salim et al., 2008; Simon et al.,

2009; Subbarayappa, 1997; Chaubal et al., 2005; Padro-Andreu et al., 2006; http://en.wikipedia.org, http://plants.usda.gov/, http://www.ars-grin.gov/

73842_C002.indd 32 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 33

Table 2.5 Distribution of plants in the world

Family Genus Species Distribution

Acanthaceae 346 4,300 Amazon, Central America, Africa, Indo-Malaysia

Aceraceae 2 113 Northern North America

Achariaceae 3 3 Africa

Actinidiaceae 3 355 Eastern Asia, Northern Australia, tropical America

Agavaceae 20 670 Arid America

Aizoaceae 100 2,400 Tropical Africa, Asia, Australia, South America, USA

Alangiaceae 1 17 Tropics and semitropics of the Old World

Alismataceae 11 95 Temperate and tropical regions of the Northern

hemisphere

Alstroemeriaceae 4 200 Central and South America

Aloeaceae 7 400 Arabia, South Africa, Madagascar

Amaranthaceae 71 800 Tropical America, Africa

Amaryllidaceae 85 1,100 Worldwide

Anacardiaceae 73 850 North temperate regions of Eurasia, North America

Annonaceae 128 2,050 Old World Tropics

Apocynaceae 215 2100 Tropical with some in the temperate zones

Aquifoliaceae 4 420 South America, North America and South Pacic

Araceae 106 2,950 Tropical and subtropical but extends into temperate

regions

Araliaceae 57 800 Indo-Malaysia, tropical America

Araucariaceae 2 32 Southern hemisphere except in Africa and southeast

Asia

Aristolochiaceae 7 410 Tropical and temperate zone

Asclepiadaceae 347 2,850 Pantropical, South America

Balanitaceae 1 25 Tropical Asia and Africa

Balanopacaceae 1 9 Southwest Pacic including Queensland, Australia

Balsaminaceae 2 850 Asian and African tropics

Basellaceae 4 15 Tropical America and West Indies, one species native

to Asia

Bataceae 1 2 Tropical and subtropics of the New World and Hawaii

Begoniaceae 2 900 Throughout tropics, especially in South America

Berberidaceae 15 570 South America

Betulaceae 6 150 Northern hemisphere

Bignoniaceae 112 725 Northern South America

Bixaceae 3 16 American tropics

Bombacaceae 30 250 American tropics

Boraginaceae 54 2,500 Wide distribution

Bromeliaceae 46 2,100 Native to tropical and warm America

Bruniaceae 11 69 South Africa

Burseraceae 8 540 Tropical America, northeastern regions of Africa

Buxaceae 5 60 Tropics and subtropics of the Old World

Cabombaceae 2 8 Warm temperate areas

Cactaceae 130 1,650 New World

Callitrichaceae 1 17 New World and Old World

Calycanthaceae 3 9 South China, Southeast Asia, Pacic Islands,

Australia, New Zealand, Chile

Calyceraceae 6 55 South America

Campanulaceae 87 1,950 Temperate and subtropical regions

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 33 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

34 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Canellaceae 5 16 Caribbean, Madagascar, Africa

Cannaceae 1 25 New World tropics

Capparidaceae 45 675 Paleotropic

Caprifoliaceae 16 365 Asia, North America

Caricaceae 4 31 Tropical America, and tropical Africa

Carpinaceae 3 47 East Asia

Caryocaraceae 2 24 Tropical America

Caryophyllaceae 89 1070 Northern temperate zone

Casuarinaceae 4 70 Australia

Celastraceae 49 1300 Wide distribution

Centrolepidaceae 3 28 Southeast Asia to Australia

Cephalotaxaceae 1 4 Asia

Ceratophylaceae 1 2 Worldwide

Cercidiphyllaceae 1 1 China and Japan

Chenopodiaceae 120 1,300 Worldwide

Chloranthaceae 4 56 New World; tropics and semitropics of the Old World

Cistaceae 7 135 Mediterranean region

Clethraceae 1 64 Tropical Asia and America

Cochlospermaceae 2 25 Tropical regions of the World

Combretaceae 20 500 Pantropical

Commelinaceae 42 620 Old and New World tropics and subtropics

Compositae

(=Asteraceae)+A106 1314 21,000 Worldwide except Antarctica

Connaraceae 20 380 Tropical

Convolvulaceae 58 1650 Tropical and subtropical

Coriariaceae 1 30 Temperate regions of the world

Cornaceae 12 100 Temperate North America and Asia

Corylaceae

(>Betulaceae) 35 1500 Temperate Northern and South Hemisphere

Crassulaceae 35 1500 Worldwide

Cruciferae

(=Brassicaceae) 300 3,700 Cool areas of the northern hemisphere

Crypteroniaceae 5 11 Asia, South Africa, South America

Cucurbitaceae 125 960 Tropical and semitropical regions of the Old and

New Worlds

Cunoniaceae 26 350 Australia, New Zealand, southern South America,

and southern Africa

Cupressaceae 30 140 Worldwide

Cycadaceae 1 95 East Africa to Japan and Australia

Cyclanthaceae 12 190 West Indies and South America

Cyperaceae 115 1600 Worldwide

Cyrillaceae 3 14 Southeastern USA, Cuba, Brazil and Colombia

Daphniphyllaceae 1 25 Eastern Asia from China through Malaysia to tropical

Australia

Datiscaceae 3 4 Malaysia to Australia; Western North America

Diapensiaceae 5 12 New World (Arctic regions of the northern

hemisphere)

Dichapetalaceae 3 165 Tropical and subtropical regions of the world

Dilleniaceae 12 300 Australia

Dioscoreaceae 8 750 Africa, Asia, Latin America, Oceania

73842_C002.indd 34 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 35

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Dipsacaceae 8 350 Mediterranean, Eurasia, and Africa

Dipterocarpaceae 16 530 Pantropical, northern south America to Africa

Droseraceae 3 200 Tropical and subtropical regions of the both

hemispheres

Ebenaceae 2 500 Africa, Comoro Island, and Arabia

Elaeagnaceae 3 45 Southern Asia, Europe, and North America, Australia

Elaeocarpaceae 12 605 Madagascar, South East Asia, Eastern Australia,

South America

Elatinaceae 2 50 Worldwide except Arctic region

Ephedraceae 1 40 Northern Hemisphere, Asia, South America

Equisetaceae 1 29 Cosmopolitan except for Austalia and New Zealand

Ericaceae 145 3,345 Temperate zones; some tropical region

Eriocaulaceae 10 1,200 America

Erythroxylaceae 4 240 Tropical america

Eucommiaceae 1 1 China

Euphorbiaceae 321 7,950 Tropical America, Mediterranean basin, Middle East

and Africa

Eupomatiaceae 1 2 Australia, New Guinea

Fagaceae 7 1050 Northern Hemisphere from temperate to subtropical,

Pantropical

Filicopsida (Ferns)

Adiantaceae 56 1150 Tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World

Aspleniaceae 78 2200 Cosmopolitan distribution epiphytes or rock plants,

Hawaii

Blechnaceae 10 260 Cosmopolitan distribution

Cyatheaceae 2 625 Tropical regions

Davalliaceae 13 220 Warm and tropical regions-epiphytic

Dennstaedtiaceae 24 410 Pantropicals

Dicksoniaceae 2 26 Tropical America, the southwest Pacic and the island

of St. Helena

Gleicheniaceae 6 125 Paleotropics and warmer regions of the New World

Graimitidiaceae 11 500 Tropical and warm south temperate zones

Hymenophyllaceae 33 460 Tropical rain forest, temperate rain forest (New

Zealand)

Isoetaceae 2 150 Cosmopolitan aquatics except in the islands of the

Pacic

Marattiaceae 7 100 East-Asian regions, tropical and warm regions

Marsiliaceae 3 70 Worldwide

Ophioglossaceae 4 65 Tropical and temperate regions

Osmundaceae 4 25 Tropical and temperate regions-ornamentals

Parkeiaceae

(=Ceratopteridaceae) 2 4 Tropical, subtropical and warm temperate

regions-worldwide

Plagiogyriace 1 37 Asia and Americas (tropical and subtropical

regions)

Polypodiaceae 60 1,000 Tropical regions

Psilotaceae 2 9 Tropical and subtropical-Hawaii

Schizaceae 4 150 Warm and tropical areas

Thelypteridaceae 30 900 Tropical and temperate regions

Thrysopteridaceae 3 20 Macronesia

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 35 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

36 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Flagellariaceae 2 4 Tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World

and Australia

Fouquieriaceae 1 11 Mexico

Frankeniaceae 1 100 Worldwide primarily Mediterranean

Fumariaceae 20 575 Northern hemisphere, South Africa

Garryaceae 2 28 Western North and Central America, eastern Asia

Gentianaceae 87 1,500 Worldwide distribution

Geraniaceae 14 800 Temperate and tropical regions of both hemispheres

Gesneriaceae 150 3,200 Tropical and subtropical regions-Old and New World

Ginkgoaceae 1 1 China

Globulariaceae 10 250 Mediterranean

Gnetaceae 1 35 Tropical regions of Old and New World

Goodeniaceae 16 430 Australasian

Gramineae

(=Poaceae) 635 10,000 Widely distributed

Grossulariaceae 23 340 Temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere

Guttiferae

(=Clusiaceae) 37 1610 Tropical Central and South America

Haemodoraceae 16 85 Tropical North and South America, Australia,

New Guinea, South Africa

Haloragaceae 8 145 Australia, Southern Hemisphere

Hamamelidaceae 28 90 Subtropics of Southeast Asia

Hernandiaceae 4 68 Pantropical

Himantandraceae 1 2 Eastern Malayasia to northern Australia

Hippocastanaceae 2 15 North and South America

Humiriaceae 8 50 Neotropical; one species in tropical West Africa

Hydrocharitaceae 16 90 Warm fresh and salt waters of the world

Hydrophyllaceae 20 300 Western United States

Hypoxidaceae 7 120 America, Asia, Africa, Australia

Icacinaceae 55 400 Tropical to temperate regions

Iridaceae 92 2,000 South and Central Africa, the eastern Mediterranean,

Eurasia, North America

Juglandaceae 8 59 Central and South America, Temperate Asia to Java

and New Guinea

Julianaceae 2 5 Peru north to Central America

Juncaceae 8 400 Europe, South America

Juncaginaceae 4 18 Temperate and cold regions-worldwide

Labiatae

(=Lamiaceae) 236 7,200 Cosmopolitan distribution

Lacistemataceae 2 14 Mesoamerica and South America (excluding Chile

and Argentina)

Lardizabalaceae 8 50 Japan to China, Chile, western Argentina

Lauraceae 55 4,000 Tropical southeast Asia, Africa, Mediterranean,

central Chile

Lecythidaceae 20 280 South America, Madagascar

Leguminosae

(=Fabaceae) 730 19,400 Worldwide distribution

Lemnaceae 6 30 Worldwide distribution

Lentibulariaceae 4 245 Worldwide distribution

Liliaceae 294 4500 Warmtemperate and tropical regions

73842_C002.indd 36 6/13/11 7:14:36 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 37

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Limnanthaceae 2 8 North America

Linaceae 15 300 Cosmopolitan distribution

Loasaceae 20 260 Western South America, Africa, Arabia

Loganiaceae 29 600 South America

Loranthaceae 75 1,000 Tropical to temperate regions (Australia, Central to

South America)

Lycopodiaceae 5 300 Cosmopolitan distribution

Lythraceae 31 580 American tropics

Magnoliaceae 7 225 Tropical to warm temperate regions (Old to

New Worlds)

Malpighiaceae 75 1,300 Old World to New World

Malvaceae 200 3,300 Cosmopolitan distribution

Marantaceae 31 550 American tropics

Marcgraviaceae 5 108 Tropical America, Australasia, Sub-Saharan Africa

Martyniaceae 18 95 New World Tropical region

Mayacaceae 1 4 South America, West Africa

Melastomataceae 215 4750 South America-tropics

Meliaceae 51 575 Tropical and subtropical regions-temperate China,

Southeast Australia

Melianthaceae 2 8 Tropical and Southern Africa, Chile

Mendonciaceae 2 80 Tropical America and Africa

Menispermaceae 78 570 Tropical to temperate-North America and eastern Asia

Menyanthaceae 5 70 Worldwide distribution

Monimiaceae 35 450 Warm and tropical regions-Madagascar

Moraceae 48 1200 Tropical and warm to some temperate regions

Moringaceae 1 14 Asia and Africa (Madagascar, Arabia to India)

Musaceae 2 42 Old World tropics

Myoporaceae 5 220 Australia and the Indian ocean

Myricaceae 4 50 Cosmopolitan distribution

Myristicaceae 19 440 Northern Amazon

Myrothamnaceae 1 2 South Africa and Medagascar

Myrsinaceae 37 1250 Old to New World

Myrtaceae 150 5650 Australia, Tropical to warm temperate regions

Najadaceae 1 35 Cosmopolitan distribution

Nelumbonaceae 1 2 Eastern Asia, North America

Nepenthaceae 1 130 Seychelles and Madagascar to Australia and

New Caledonia

Nyctaginaceae 34 350 Tropical and subtropical of both hemispheres

Nymphaeaceae 8 70 Worldwide distribution

Nyssaceae 5 10 North America, China, southeast Asia

Ochnaceae 53 600 South America-Brazil

Olacaceae 14 100 Tropical regions-America, Africa and Asia

Oleaceae 29 900 Temperate and tropical Asia

Oliniaceae 1 8 Southern Africa

Onagraceae 24 650 Warm and temperate America

Opiliaceae 10 30 Tropical woody family

Orchidaceae 700 30000 Cosmopolitan-Asia, South America, Africa, Oceania,

Europe

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 37 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

38 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Orobanchaceae 90 2000 Northern hemisphere, subtropicals of the Old and

New World

Oxalidaceae 8 900 Tropical and subtropical regions of the world

Palmae (=Arecaceae) 202 2600 Tropical and subtropical regions of the world

Pandanaceae 3 700 Old Word tropics, New Zealand

Papaveraceae 26 250 Cosmopolitan family-temperate and subtropical

regions

Passioraceae 18 530 Tropical and warm temperate regions of America

Pedaliaceae 18 95 Warm Tropical areas-Old World

Penaeaceae 7 25 Southern Africa

Philydraceae 4 5 Southeast Asia to Australia

Phytolaccaceae 18 65 Tropical and warm areas of the America

Pinaceae 11 250 South to Central America, West Indies, Southwest

China to Sumatra and Java

Piperaceae 14 3610 Southeast Asia, Pacic Islands, Central and

South America

Pittosporaceae 9 240 Old World family, especially Australia, Malaysia

Plantaginaceae 90 1700 Cosmopolitan family

Platanaceae 1 7 Northern hemisphere

Plumbaginaceae 24 800 Cosmopolitan distribution

Podocarpaceae 19 156 Asia, tropical Africa, Central Africa

Podostemaceae 50 275 Tropical Asia, America

Polemoniaceae 25 400 Western and northern America, Eurasia

Polygalaceae 17 1000 Cosmopolitan family but absent in the western Pacic

Polygonaceae 50 1200 Cosmopolitan family

Pontederiaceae 9 31 North America

Portulacaceae 29 500 Southern hemisphere in Africa, Australia, and

South America

Potamogetonaceae 6 120 Sub-cosmopolitan family

Primulaceae 24 800 Northern hemisphere

Proteaceae 80 2000 Australia and South Africa

Punicaceae

(>Lythraceae) 1 2 Southeastern Europe to the Himalayas

Pyrolaceae

(>Ericaceae) 4 42 North temperate zone to Sumatra

Quinaceae 4 44 Amazonia

Rafflesiaceae 8 50 Tropical family but few temperate zones

Ranunculaceae 60 1750 North temperate family-Worldwide

Resedaceae 6 75 Old World especially of the temperate zones

Restionaceae 50 520 Australia and South Africa

Rhabdodendraceae 1 6 South American trees

Rhamnaceae 60 900 Cosmopolitan-tropical and warm regions

Rhizophoraceae 16 130 Old World tropics

Rosaceae 107 3100 Subcosmopolitan-warm temperate

Rubiaceae 611 13000 Pantropical and subtropical

Rutaceae 161 1700 Cosmopolitan family-tropical

Sabiaceae 3 160 Warm temperate regions of Southeast Asia, tropical

Africa, and America

Salicaceae 52 453 Subcosmopolitan-northern hemisphere

Salvadoraceae 3 12 Southeast Asia, Africa-Madagascar

73842_C002.indd 38 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 39

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Santalaceae 36 1000 Warm and tropical regions-cosmopolitan

Sapindaceae 150 2000 Temperate regions

Sapotaceae 107 1000 Tropical and few temperate-Pantropicals

Sarraceniaceae 3 15 Eastern and western North America, northeastern

South America

Saururaceae 5 7 North America and eastern and southern Asia

Saxifragaceae 36 475 Subcosmopolitan distribution

Scrophulariaceae 275 5000 Cosmopolitan distribution

Selaginellaceae 1 700 Cosmopolitan distribution

Simaroubaceae 22 170 A tropical to temperate Asia

Smilacaceae 10 225 Tropical and warm zones-southern hemisphere

Solanaceae 90 2800 Subcosmopolitan - Andean South America

Sonneratiaceae 2 7 Old World species

Sparangiaceae 1 12 North temperate zone and south to Australia and

New Zealand

Sphenocleaceae 1 2 Tropical family, Indonesia, areas of Amazonian

Stachyuraceae 1 6 Asian family extends to Japan to the Himalayas

Stackhousiaceae 3 28 Australasia-Australia, New Zealand, the islands

of Pacic

Staphyleaceae 5 27 Northern Hemisphere and South America

Stemonaceae 4 32 Eastern Asia, Indomalaysia, south totropical Australia,

eastern north America

Sterculiaceae 72 1500 Warm and tropical regions-few temperate zones

Stylidaceae 5 150 Southern and southeastern Asia, Australasia,

South America

Styracaceae 12 165 Warm and tropical areas of Americas, Mediterranean,

Southeast Asia

Symplocaceae 2 320 Tropical and warm America, eastern Old World,

Australia

Taccaceae 1 31 Tropical family

Tamaricaceae 5 78 Eurasian, Africa, Asia

Taxaceae 12 30 Temperate regions-New Caladonia

Taxodiaceae 10 14 North America, Central Asia, Tasmania

Theaceae 40 520 Tropical family

Theophrastaceae 7 95 Tropical regions of the Americas

Thymelaeaceae 50 898 Australia, tropical Africa

Tiliaceae 50 725 Subcosmopolitan family

Tremandraceae 3 43 Australia

Trigoniaceae 4 35 Madagascar, Tropical America, Western Malaysia

Trochodendraceae 2 2 Asia-Korea, Japan to Taiwan

Tropaeolaceae 3 88 Central and South America

Turneraceae 10 120 Warm and tropical areas of America and Africa

Typhaceae 1 12 Cosmopolitan marsh plants

Ulmaceae 18 150 Tropical and north tmperate areas

Umbelliferae

(=Apiaceae) 418 3100 Cosmopolitan-north temperate zone and tropical

mountains

Urticaceae 79 1050 Tropical to temperate species

Valerianaceae 17 400 Cosmopolitan family-north temperate and the Andes

of South America

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 39 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

40 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

the moist and the dry forests of Madagascar, New Caledonia, and Hawaii; Brazil's Atlantic coastal

moist forest; and the fynbos of South Africa's cape oral kingdom. The United Nations Educational,

Scientic, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) provides long-term protection of landscapes, eco-

systems, and species. According to a list compiled in 2003 by the United Nations, 102,102 areas

are protected, worldwide, covering 18.8 million km2. This amounts to 12.65% of the earth's land

surface—an area equivalent to South America (Chape et al. 2003). Thus, we must balance utiliza-

tion and conservation (Akerele, Heywood, and Synge 1991; Alexiades 1996; Freese 1998; Sheldon,

Balick, and Laird 1997).

Overharvesting of plants has placed many medicinal plant species at risk of extinction.

Commercial exploitation has also sometimes led to traditional medicines becoming unavailable

to the indigenous people who have depended on them for centuries or millennia. Already, about

15,000 medicinal plant species may be threatened with extinction worldwide (Roberson 2008).

In 1995, Mendelsohn and Balick (1995) estimated that "each new drug is worth an average of $94

million to a private drug company and $449 million to society as a whole" and that "screening of

all tropical species should be worth about $3–4 billion to a private pharmaceutical company and

as much as $147 billion to society as a whole." Various guides on conservation of medicinal plants

have been published (Freese 1998; Fuller 1991; Given 1994; Jenkins and Oldeld 1992; Lewington

1993; Marshall 1998). In addition, organizations such as United Plant Savers have been formed to

promote not only conservation but also ecologically conscious cultivation of at-risk medicinal plants

(Cech 2002; Gladstar and Hirsch 2000).

In order to reduce overharvesting of wild plants, more selection and breeding must be done for

both increased and stable yields of pharmacologically active constituents under cultivation. Johnson

and Franz (2002) are cited as a good example of research in this direction. As compendia of guidelines

for cultivation and harvesting of medicinal plants, the books by Hay and Waterman (1993), Hornok

(1992), Kumar et al. (1993), Peter (2001, 2004, 2006), and Weiss (1997, 2002) should be studied.

Table 2.5 Distribution of Plants in the World (Continued)

Family Genus Species Distribution

Velloziaceae 6 252 South America, Africa, Madagascar, southern Arabia

Verbenaceae 91 1900 Tropical regions

Violaceae 28 830 Cosmopolitan species

Vitaceae 13 800 Tropical to warm regions

Vochysiaceae 8 210 Tropical America, West Africa

Winteracea 9 120 South America, Australia, New Guinea, Southwestern

Pacic, Madagascar

Xanthophyllaceae 1 39 Indo-Malaysian

Xanthorrhoeaceae 1 66 Australia to New Guinea and New Caladonia

Xyridaceae 5 300 Tropical and warm area, temperate regions

Zamiaceae 8 150 America, Africa, Australia

Zingiberaceae 53 1300 Tropical Africa, Asia, and Americas

Zygophyllaceae 27 285 Tropical and warm regions

Totals 14,066 287,685

Source: Lloyd, R. M. 1974. Systematics of the genus Ceratopteris Brongn . (Parkeriaceae) II. Taxonomy. Brittonia

26(2): 139–160; Benedict, R. C. 1909. The genus Ceratopteris: A Preliminary revision. Bull. Torrey

Botanical Club 36: 463–476.; http://www.eoras.org/, http://en.wikipedia.org/, http://www.britannica.com/,

http://www.mobot.org/, http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/, http://deltaintkey.com/, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/; Kornaš, J., J. Dzwonka, K. Harmata, and A. Pacyna. 1982. Biometrics and numerical taxonomy of

the genus Actiniopteric (Adiantaceae, Fillicopsida) in Zambia. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de

Belgique 52: 265–309.; Conant, D. S., L. A., Raubeson, D. K. Attwood, and D. B. Stein. 1995. The relation-

ships of Papuasian Cyatheaceae to new world tree ferns. American Fern Journal 85: 328–340.; Raffauf,

R. F. 1996. Plant Alkaloids: A Guide to their Discovery and Distribution. New York: Haworth Press.

73842_C002.indd 40 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 41

Table 2.6 Activities of the Organizations Responsible for Coordinating Medicinal Plants

Organization Activities

ASCOPAP

African Scientic Co-operation on Phytomedicine and

Aromatic Plants

http://www.nextdaysite.net/bioresourses/index.htm/

This institution was initiated in October, 1995 at Douala, Cameroon. The mission of ASCOPAP is to promote

and facilitate the research, development and commercialization of safe, efficient, affordable, standardized

phytomedicines based on sustainable utilization of African plant resources. It is an internet home for the

African pharmacopoeia.

EFMC

European Federation for Medicinal Chemistry

http://www.efmc.info/

An independent association founded in 1970, organizes biennial international symposium in medicinal chemistry.

ESCOP

European Scientic Co-operation on Phytotherapy

http://www.escop.com/

This organization was founded in 1989. The objectives are:

To develop a coordinated scientic framework to assess phytomedicines •

To promote the acceptance of phytomedicine, especially within general medicinal practice •

To support and initiate clinical and experimental research in phytotherapy •

To produce reference monographs on the therapeutic use of plant drugs •

FAO

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United

Nations

http://www.fao.org/

This organization was founded in 1945. The objectives are:

Defeat hunger •

FAO coordinates with other medicinal and aromatic plants research institutes •

Commissions report on use of medicinal plants •

FIADREP

International Federation of Associations of Defense in

Phytotherapy Research and Training

www.phyto2000.org/adrepus.html/

To gather doctors, chemists and other members of equivalent scientic disciplines who, according to the •

medicinal tradition, carry on with researches and practices on Phytotherapy and Aromatherapy and on all

natural techniques, biological and physical which will help health to be ameliorated

To promote research, practice, and education worldwide in Phytotherapy •

to improve and extend the international accumulation of scientic and practical knowledge in the eld •

of Phytotherapy

to support all appropriate measures that will secure optimum protection for those who use herbal •

medicinal products

To unify and coordinate, in each countries member, in Europe and all over the world, the defense of the •

use of medicinal plants of a pharmacomedicinal quality

To pursue research and practices in Phytotherapy and to spread all over the world an education in •

accordance with the various points of the present statutes.

To bring up to date yearly, the criteria of the pre-established clinical consensus which are necessary to join •

the FIADREP, and to publish an opuscule which describes those criteria

(continued)

73842_C002.indd 41 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

42 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

Table 2.6 Activities of the Organizations Responsible for Coordinating Medicinal Plants

Organization Activities

GIFTS

The Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health

http://www.giftsofhealth.org/html/history.html/

This organization was founded in 1993.

Has outreach programs in Asia and Africa •

It focuses on policy, education and research in the are of Malaria, HIV/AIDS and TB as priority diseases,

traditional medicine in managing common ailments, especially skin conditions, refugees and their utilization

of traditional health services and intellectual property rights, traditional resource rights and conservation and

sustainable use of medicinal plant resources

IDRC

International Development Research Centre

http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-1-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html/

This organization was founded in 1970 in Canada.

Activities in 60 countries and has several projects: •

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia ( • www.medplant.net)

Preserve medicinal plants of Rwanda •

Latin America •

ICMAP

International Council for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

http://www.icmap.org/

This organization was established in 1993.

Promoting international understanding and cooperation between national and international organizations •

on the role of medicinal and aromatic plants in science, medicine, and industry

Improve relation of exchange of knowledge •

IOCD

International Organization for Chemical Sciences in

Development

http://www.iocd.org/index.shtml/

This organization was established in 1981.

Synthesized of the rst steroid oral contraceptive; now well-known birth control pil •

Promoting identication of natural products •

Collaborating with the responsible groups in South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, and Guatemala, in making •

plans to, eventually, implement bio-prospecting

IUCN

International Union for the Conservation of Nature

http://www.iucn.org/

This organization was founded in 1948.

The largest professional global conservation network; about 15,000 species of medicinal plants are •

globally threatened due to loss of habitat, overexploitation, invasive species and pollution.

Manage natural products •

Conservation of medicinal plants and traditional knowledge •

TRAFFIC

http://www.traffic.org/

Joint wildlife monitoring program of the World Wildlife

Fund and International Union for the Conservation

of Nature

This organization was established in 1976.

Mission is • the wildlife trade monitoring network, works to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is

not a threat to the conservation of nature

Nine regional programs (Central Africa, East Asia, East/Southern Africa, Europe, North America, Oceana, •

South America, South Asia, Southeast Asia)

Promote collection and conservation of medicinal plants threatened by over-collection, and deforestation •

73842_C002.indd 42 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

MEDICINAL PLANTS—NATURE'S PHARMACY 43

UNESCO

United Nations, Educational, Scientic and Cultural

Organizations

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/

This organization was created in 1945.

Develop guidelines and training on conservation of medicinal plants worldwide •

Organize international symposium on medicinal plants and spices, and other natural products •

Preservation and publication of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants of African countries •

UNIDO

United Nations Industrial Development Organization

http://www.unido.org/

This organization was established in 1966.

To establish 2020 vision for Andean medicinal plants •

Expansion and upgrading of small sized pharmaceuticals enterprises in selected developing countries •

of Asia and Africa.

Manufacturing generic drugs affordable to poor people •

WHO

World Health Organization

http://www.who.int/en/

This organization was founded in 1948.

Publication of books, monographs, bulletins, yers on medicinal plants •

Formulation of national policies on traditional medicine •

Combating communicable diseases •

Building healthy communities and populations •

Education •

WWF

http://www.worldwildlife.org/This organization was founded in 1961.

The mandate is conservation of nature and natural resources including medicinal plants •

Develop guidelines for global trade on medicinal plants •

73842_C002.indd 43 6/13/11 7:14:37 PM

44 GENETIC RESOURCES, CHROMOSOME ENGINEERING, AND CROP IMPROVEMENT

The term "biopiracy" has been coined to describe the practice of private companies patenting

traditional remedies from the wild and selling them at a vast prot, often allowing little or none

of that prot to go back to the country or indigenous and local communities of origin. Neem tree

(Azadirachta indica A. Juss.), a south Asian relative to mahogany, has yielded extremely effective

and protable germicide, fungicide, and other compounds (see, for example, Tiwari et al. 2010).

By 1995, at least 50 patents had been granted to U.S. and international corporations for products

extracted from this species (Torrance 2000).

Man-made disasters in Iraq and Afghanistan, such as war, may cause many medicinal plants to

become extinct because of lack of plant exploration, preservation, and maintenance. Younos et al.

(1987) identied 215 medicinal plants in Afghanistan whose current status is unknown.

The quality and efcacy of the Chinese traditional medicines, Ayurvedic medicines, and natural

health products should be monitored through private and public agencies after extensive clinical

trials. Molecular technologies can help quality control of plant-based drugs and extracts (Chavan,

Joshi, and Patwardhan 2006). Bioactive compounds of the Ayurvedic plants need to be determined

(Khan and Balick 2001; Samy, Pushparaj, and Gopanakrishnakone 2008).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work of A. Lebeda in this chapter was supported by the project MSM 6198959215 (Ministry of

Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic).

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... On one hand, a greater proportion is located in certain areas of the planet, in developing countries and its use and conservation is linked to traditional cultures, implying knowledge, beliefs and spirituality. On the other hand, the fact that most are wild (40.5%) or naturalized (33.3%) and only 3.3% are cultivated ( Singh et al. 2012) means that their conservation depends mainly on collection pressure. ...

... Most medicinal plants are wild, with only a few having been domesticated and being in current cultivation (Singh et al., 2011). Panax notoginseng, however, has been cultivated for more than 400 years in a narrow habitat in the Wenshan region of Yunnan Province (Zheng and Yang, 1994; Guo et al., 2010). ...

• Sheng-Chao Yang

Aim: Panax notoginseng is an important traditional Chinese medicinal plant. Although the species has been cultivated for more than 400 years, a certified variety is still not available. Natural populations (NP) exhibit high levels of morphological variation and genetic diversity, suggesting that mass selection may be used to improve P. notoginseng. In previous studies, we established 38 mass selection populations based on certain morphological traits (target characters) and eliminated undesirable individuals over five successive generations. The objective of the present study was to evaluate phenotypic and genetic uniformity of three of these populations: purple-stem (PSP), green-stem (GSP), and erect-type (ETP) populations. Methods: To assess phenotypic uniformity, 12 morphological traits were measured in NP and the three selected populations. Genetic uniformity of these four populations was also evaluated using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. Results: Phenotypic uniformity was only exhibited with respect to target characters, including stem color in PSP and GSP, and petiole-peduncle angle in ETP. Average coefficients of variation detected for most non-target characters in PSP, GSP, and ETP were similar or higher to those of NP. When these four populations were analyzed using 129 ISSR markers, the percentage of polymorphic bands detected was 72.27% in PSP, 76.40% in GSP, 58.34% in ETP, and 76.23% in NP. Genetic identities (I) in PSP, GSP, and ETP were 0.9058, 0.8663, and 0.8703, respectively, with a value greater than 0.7814 in NP. Conclusion: Mass selection is an efficient way to improve target characters and genetic uniformity in P. notoginseng. Nevertheless, selection of specific individuals exhibiting comprehensive phenotypic traits may be necessary to accelerate the breeding process.

The "tara" or "taya" Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze (Fabaceae) is a South American species of biological, economic and cultural importance. Its fruits and seeds are used in medicine, food and industry, and mainly come from wild populations. Peru is the main exporter of "tara" and the Cajamarca Region is the second largest producer in this country. However, studies on the morphological variability of the species are scarce and confusing, which limits its use, study and conservation. Studies indicate that the discriminating morphological characters are found in the fruit (pod) and the seed. Fifty-six samples of pods from nine provinces of the Cajamarca region were gathered. Through direct observation and specialized literature, eleven basic descriptors of fruit and seed were established to determine the variability of germplasm. The data was entered into a basic data matrix and processed with the NTSYS 2.2 program. Seven morphotypes (clusters) were identified: Giant, distributed in Cajamarca, Contumazá and Chota; White and Red, distributed in the nine provinces; Bearded, exclusive of Celendín; Jancos, distributed in Cajamarca, San Pablo and Santa Cruz; Ista, distributed in Cajamarca and Contumazá; and Globose, distributed in Cajamarca. The first five main components explained 73 % of the total variance and the characters that contributed the most to this variance were yarn location, seed shape, pod length/width ratio, color of the opposite side to the sun, surface appearance of the pod, presence of glandular hairs in the pod, weight of the seed and long/wide relation of the seed.

In this study, ethnobotanical properties of some herbal plants marketed in herbalists and local bazaars of Kırıkhan province of Hatay city were investigated during 2011-2013. For this purpose, herbalists and local markets in the province were visited to identify for what purpose these plants are sold and how they are used. It was identified that 70 taxa in herbalists and 37 taxa in local markets have some ethnobotanical properties. Then, these plant taxa were alphabetically listed according to their family names, including their Latin and local names, their used parts and usage purposes. The obtained results were comparatively discussed with current literatures. We believe that fınding of this study will significantly contribute to the ethnobotanical studies at local and regional scales.

• Art Whistler

This book is aimed at ethnobotany students, doctors studying herbal medicines, and anyone who wants to learn something about Tongan culture and its herbal medicine heritage. The book is much more detailed than the Tongan section in the earlier Polynesian Herbal Medicine written by the same author. Although Tongan Herbal Medicine lacks photographs of the plants themselves, many of these can be found in other books by Isle Botanica (e.g., Wayside plants of the Islands, Flowers of the Pacific Island Seashore, and Polynesian Herbal Medicine). The book is not meant to be used as a practical guide for someone taking or administering medicine, since the information was collected with the understanding of the healers that it was not for this purpose, and dosage is consequently not given. The use of medicinal plants dates to prehistoric times when ancient people found that ingestion or application of certain herbs and barks was effective in treating some of the ailments that plagued them. Herbal medicine is a part of virtually all cultures, and the Polynesian kingdom of Tonga is no exception. Even today herbal medicine is used at one time or another by a large percentage of the Tongan population, especially during infancy and childhood. While plants used for food, shelter, dyes, and many others aspects of the material culture of Tonga are easy to see and study, the use of plants for medicines is more esoteric. To elucidate this poorly known facet of Tongan culture, the author undertook a study of Tongan herbal medicine, which involved interviews with over 50 local healers over a several-year span. The book is divided into three chapters. The first chapter, "Traditional Tongan Medicine," includes an introduction on the islands, their culture, and their history, and sections on previous literature and the ancient practice of Tongan medicine. The second chapter, "Modern Tongan Medicine," comprises a description of health care in Tonga today, concepts of sickness and health, and the current practice of herbal medicine. The third chapter, "Tongan Medicinal Plants," includes an enumeration and discussion of 77 of the most commonly used medicinal plants in Tonga, which are arranged in alphabetical order by Tongan name. The information given for each plant includes the following: (1) Tongan name; (2) scientific name; (3) family to which the plant belongs; (4) English name or names; (5) distribution; (6) habitat in which the plant is found; (7) a botanical description; and (8) the medicinal uses of the plant in Tonga. Following the third chapter is a list of literature cited, a glossary of Tongan medical terms, and an index to scientific names.

• Art Whistler

This book is aimed at ethnobotany students, doctors studying herbal medicines, and anyone else who wants to learn something about Polynesian cultures and their herbal medicine heritage. The presence of color photos will greatly assist those wanting to identify the medicinal plants, particularly those species discussed in the other books produced by Isle Botanica, such as Tongan Herbal Medicine and Samoan Herbal Medicine. The book is not meant to be used as a practical guide for someone taking or administering medicine, since the information was collected with the understanding of the healers that it was not for this purpose, and dosage is consequently not given. The use of medicinal plants dates to prehistoric times when ancient people found that ingestion or application of certain herbs and barks was effective in treating some of the ailments that plagued them. Herbal medicine is a part of virtually all cultures, and the South Pacific islands that comprise Polynesian are no exception. Even today herbal medicine is used at one time or another by a large percentage of the Polynesians living in Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, the Society Islands, Hawai'i, and New Zealand, especially during infancy and childhood. While plants used for food, shelter, dyes, and many others aspects of the material culture of Tonga are easy to see and study, the use of plants for medicines is more esoteric. To elucidate this poorly known facet of Polynesian culture, the author undertook a study of Polynesian herbal medicine, which involved interviews with over 75 local healers over a several-year span. The book is divided into four chapters. The first, "Introduction to Polynesia," includes sections on the islands, the people, the languages, and the migrations. The second chapter, "Traditional Polynesian Medical Practices," includes sections on the applicable literature, the ailments of the ancient Polynesians, the epidemics, the causation of illness, medical practices, the treatment of injuries, Polynesian massage, and a summary. The third chapter, "Polynesian Medical Practices Today," includes a discussion of current medicinal practices in five parts of Polynesia - Tonga, Samoa, Tahiti, the Cook Islands, and Hawaii. The fourth chapter, "The Medicinal Plants," comprises an enumeration and discussion of 90 of the most commonly used medicinal plants in Polynesia. These are arranged in alphabetical order by scientific name. Each species has a detailed, close-up color photo and the following information: (1) scientific name; (2) family to which the plant belongs; (3) English name or names (if any); (4) Polynesian names in Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, the Society Islands, and Hawaii; (5) a botanical description (6) distribution; (7) habitat in which the plant is found; and (8) uses, both medicinal and non-medicinal, in Polynesia and elsewhere in the world. Following the four chapters is a bibliography of pertinent literature, an index to the scientific names, and an index to Polynesian names.

The present research work is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holly Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The main aim of this study is to establish how the different parts or aspects of plant based Islamic medicines (Tibb) such as use of medicinal plants, health principle, hygiene, practice, thought and culture when taken together, demonstrate both wholeness as a system and systematic nature of plant based Islamic medicines. In view of the importance of this study comprehensive and detailed data was systematically collected from Holly Quran, Ahadith`s books, Islamic history and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 32 medicinal plants species belonging to 30 genera of 23 families of plant kingdom. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name, Arabic name, family, habit and habitat, distribution, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holly Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being used by about 80% of the world population, mainly developing countries for primary health care because of better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with human body and lesser side effects. It is recommended that plant based industries should be developed in the light of Islamic teaching and research.

• Amit Baran Sharangi

Plants as a friend and sensible neighbour have a wonderful co-existance with human beings in the lap of our mother nature. They have been one of the important sources of medicines even since the dawn of human civilization. During the last few decades, there has been a tremendous transformation both of our consciousness for health as well as the field medical systems in glabal level. The rapid realization of the toxicity-related issues generated in the field of agriculture, industry, mining and other advancement, coupled with the indiscriminate use of antibiotics and synthetic drugs, we are increasingly making sense that drugs from natural sources are far more safer. Therefore, there is an obvious upsurge in the use of plant-derived products in various names, formulations and usage patterns. Despite rapid advances in chemical, biological, biochemical, molecular and various omics technologies and the appearance of several cheap, synthesized, complex molecules from simple ones through highly specific reaction mechanisms, medicinal plants and their derivatives still continue to play a major role in health and wellness related medical therapy. Drug development from a wide diversity of medicinal plants has been clinically, socially and economically accepted to be safer and less costlier than their synthetic counterparts. The book has been designed to highlight the related issues of medicinal plants including the aspects of their classification, importance, uses, botany, agrotechniques, major bioactive chemical constituents, harvest and post-harvest processing, etc alongwith an informative list of references used for writing the book.

• Kunhikannan Cheravengat

Information on 280 medicinal plants including botanical name, family, vernacular name, botanical descriptions, distribution, uses and method of propagation and photographs for easy identification id provided.

• Thomas S. C. Li

Written by internationally renowned scientist and author Thomas S.C. Li, Taiwanese Native Medicinal Plants presents information critical to assessing the medicinal potential of Taiwanese herbs. A comprehensive review of chemical constituents, toxicity, and therapeutic values, the book focuses on documentation of the chemical components present and their therapeutic properties. The author begins with a general introduction regarding the geographic advantages for growing varieties of medicinal plants, followed by tables presenting information on the major constituents and therapeutic values of more than 1000 species. He includes an index, three appendices cross-referencing major chemical components and their sources, and the common and scientific names of the medicinal plants cited in the table. Arranged alphabetically by Latin name into tables, the information is easy to find and the book easy to use.

• James A. Duke
• P.-A.K. Duke
• J.L. DuCellie

Known for their ease of use, artful presentation of scientific information, and evidence-based approach, James Duke's comprehensive handbooks are the cornerstone in the library of almost every alternative and complementary medicine practitioner and ethnobotanist. Using the successful format of these bestselling handbooks, Duke's Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible covers 150 herbs that scholars speculate, based on citations, were used in Biblical times.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261724646_Medicinal_Plants-Nature's_Pharmacy

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